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ECONOMY  IN  EDUCATION 


A  PRACTICAL  DISCUSSION  OF  PRESENT-DAY 

PROBLEMS  OF  ED  UCA  TIONAL 

ADMINISTRATION 


RURIC  NEVEL  ROARK,  Ph.D., 

DEAN    OF   THE   DEPARTMENT    OF    PEDAGOGY,    KENTUCKY    STATE    COLLEGE, 
LEXINGTON,    KY. 


NEW  YORK. -.CINCINNATI. -.CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK   COMPANY 


THREE 

BOOKS    ON    EDUCATION 

BY    DR.    ROARK 

PSYCHOLOGY 

IN  EDUCATION    .    . 

.    .    $tM 

METHOD  IN  EDUCATION     .    .    .    . 

.    .    $1.00 

ECONOMY  IN  EDUCATION  .    .    .    . 

'.    .    $t.00 

Copyright,    1905,   by 
RURIC  N.   ROARK. 


Entered    at   Stationers'    Hall,    London, 


ROARK  S  ECON. 
E-P      4 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  the  third  in  the  series  of  which  "  Psy- 
chology in  Education  "  is  the  first,  and  "  Method  in  Edu- 
cation "  is  the  second.  The  purpose  of  the  series  has 
been  to  develop  a  consistent  pedagogy,  based  both  upon 
the  physio-psychic  growth  of  the  pupil  as  an  individual, 
and  upon  his  functions  as  a  factor  in  the  social  organism. 
The  work  throughout  has  been  done  in  the  light  of  current 
knowledge  of  individual  and  social  growth,  and  has,  it 
is  hoped,  been  brought  into  accord  with  the  safest  the- 
ories and  most  productive  practice  arising  out  of  that 
knowledge. 

Education  as  a  science  is  in  its  infancy,  and  no  final 
word  can  now  be  written  in  any  department  of  it.  To 
reach  fruitful  results  in  the  study  of  education  the  same 
thing  is  necessary  as  has  been  necessary  to  the  upbuilding 
of  any  other  science,  namely,  inductive  work.  The  wait 
for  trustworthy  generalizations  must  be  a  long  one,  for 
observation,  comparison,  experimentation  not  only  must 
extend  over  long  reaches  of  time,  much  longer  than  in  the 
case  of  many  other  sciences,  but  they  are  all  vitiated  by 
elements  over  which  the  observer  and  experimenter  can 
have  no  control.  The  problem,  ''  Given,  the  boy  and 
girl;  required,  the  properly  educated  man  and  woman," 
is  complicated  with  more  incalculable  factors  than  any 
other  problem  awaiting  solution  at  human  hands. 

It  is  urged  that  whatever  in  this  book  can  be  used, 
shall  be  the  basis  of  further  careful,  continuous,  experi- 

351^00 


4  PREFACE 

mentation.'  Reading  cirelesahd  pedagogy  classes  should 
select  such  matters  as  come  nearest  home  to  them  and 
make  of  these  a  close,  intensive  study,  using  the  material 
indicated  in  the  copious  references  given. 

RURIC    N.    ROARK. 

State  College  of  Kentucky, 
Lexington. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 7 

I.    Organization  and  Management  of  the  Individual 

School 11 

(i)   The   Rural  School 11 

A.  Equipment ii 

B.  Organization  and  Administration        .     .  24 

(2)  The  City  School  .      .     .     \ 80 

A.  Equipment 80 

B.  Organization    and    Administration     .     .  86 

(3)  The  College 98 

A.  Building  and   Equipment 98 

B.  Organization  of  the   Session     ....  100 

C.  The   Maintenance   of   Good   Order     .     .  loi 

D.  Closing   the    Session 116 

(4)  The  Teachers*  Training  School 118 

A.  Equipment 118 

B.  Organization    and     Administration     .     .  121 

II.    Organization  and  Administration  of  School  Sys- 
tems       122 

(i)   Organization  and  Interrelation  of  School  Units  123 

A.  The   State   System      ....     .^    ..  123 

B.  The     City     System 159 

(2)  The  Curriculum 171 

A.  Making  the  Curriculum 172 

B.  Administration   of  the   Curriculum     .      .  207 


III.    Correlation  of  School  and  Community     . 

(i)   The   Institutional   Factors  of  Education 
5 


229 
229 


CONTENTS 


(2)  Correlation  of  Other  Factors  with  the  School  230 

A.  The  Home  with  the  School     ....  230 

B.  The  Library  with  the  School     ....  233 

C.  Museums    with    the    School     ....  234 

D.  Art   Galleries   with   the   School     .     .     .  235 

E.  The   Press  with   the   School     .     .     .     .  •  237 
R    The   Pulpit  with  the   School     ....  237 

(3)  Projection  of  the  School  into  the  Community  238 

A.  Schoolhouses   as    Community   Centers     .  238 

B.  Public  Playgrounds  and  Vacation  Schools  240 

C.  Educational  Extension 241 


Index 2457 


INTRODUCTION 

The  title  given  to  this  book  is  preferred  to  the  older 
and  more  familiar  one  of  "  School  Management "  because 
it  covers  a  larger  field  of  educational  activity  than  the 
latter  term.  What  has  heretofore  been  published  in  book 
form,  in  this  division  of  pedagogy,  has  for  the  most 
part  been  confined  to  a  discussion  of  the  activities  of  the 
individual  school  as  administered  by  a  single  teacher. 
But  it  is  evident,  under  any  adequate  definition  of  educa- 
tion, that  there  are  many  other  educational  forces  than 
those  of  the  school,  and  that  there  are  others  than  the 
teacher  concerned  in  properly  directing  these  forces. 

The  Title  Defined.— "  Economy  in .  Education,''  as 
a  division  of  pedagogy,  has  to  do  with  the  conserving 
and  directing  of  all  the  external  influences  which,  com- 
bined with  the  innate  self-activity  of  the  pupil,  produce 
the  result  we  call  right  education.  As  the  words  show, 
the  concern  is  with  the  careful  and  economical  use  of 
time,  money,  and  energy  in  equipping  pupils  to  live  their 
own  lives  rightly  and  to  serve  their  community.  Educa- 
tional economy,  as  a  science,  strives  to  show  how  to  pre- 
vent dissipation  and  loss  of  energy,  about  which  Dr.  But- 
ler says,  "  The  most  serious  aspect  of  the  waste  that 
surrounds  us  on  every  side  is  not  the  waste  of  time,  [bad 
as  that  is].  It  is  the  dissipation  of  energy,  the  loss  of 
effectiveness,  the  blunting  of  natural  capacity  and  apti- 
tude." 

Tompkins  says,  "  At  the  moment  of  that  effort  on  the 

7 


8  INTRODUCTION 

part  of  the  teacher  [to  do  good  teaching],  the  whole 
school  system  stands  pledged  to  the  unity  of  inspiration 
of  teacher  and  pupil.  .  .  .  The  tax-payer  is  toiling 
for  it ;  the  commissioner  of  education  is  issuing  his  report 
to  that  end;  the  state  superintendent  is  interpreting  the 
law  to  strengthen  the  work  in  hand  •  the  county  superin- 
tendent is  issuing  orders  for  the  good  of  the  cause ;  and 
the  schoolhouse,  with  its  library,  gymnasium,  wall  map, 
blackboard,  crayon,  pointer,  and  erasers,  marshalls  all  its 
forces  to  the  issue.  The  stove,  the  desks,  the  table,  the 
curtains  at  the  window,  are  all  focusing  their  energy  at 
the  moment  to  bring  the  pupil's  inspiration  up  to  that  of 
the  teacher." 

Economy  Differentiated  from  Method. —  Educational 
economy  plans  not  only  to  focus  these  forces  upon  the 
pupil  in  school,  but  to  focus  all  educational  forces 
upon  the  aim  of  saving  the  pupil's  mind  and  body, 
his  efforts  and  interest,  his  health  and  energy;  it  means 
to  save  to  a  generation  all  that  shall  enable  it  to  leave 
the  work  of  the  world  further  advanced  and  easier 
to  do.  Hence  the  range  of  educational  economy  is 
from  the  organization  and  management  of  the  one-room 
country  school  to  the  planning  and  proper  administration 
of  state  and  national  systems  of  education. 

The  objects  of  education,  in  the  broadest  sense,  are  to 
make  the  individual  able  to  use  all  of  himself,  and  to  set 
at  work  within  him  motives  to  use  all  of  himself  rightly. 
Educational  economy  is  concerned  with  every  instrumen- 
tality by  which  these  objects  may  be  gained. 

Educational  economy  and  educational  method  alike 
rest  upon  psychology,  but  are  different  in  function ;  econ- 
omy deals  with  externals,  method  with  the  subject-mat- 
ter  of  instruction   in   immediate   relation   to   individual 


INTRODUCTION  9 

mind.  Economy  plans  the  best  attainable  curriculum; 
method  devises  the  best  way  of  making  the  subject-mat- 
ter of  that  curriculum  take  effect  upon  the  individual. 
Economy  establishes  a  system  that  shall  harness  all  the 
educational  forces  of  the  community ;  method  shows  how 
to  reach  definite  results  in  the  individual  through  his  re- 
action to  different  stimuli. 

Divisions, of  the  Subject. —  The  discussion  of  economy 
in  education  falls  naturally  under  three  heads :  ( i )  the 
organization  and  management  of  the  individual  school; 
(2)  the  organization  and  administration  of  school  sys- 
tems; and  (3)  the  correlation  and  useful  direction  of  all 
the  educational  influences  of  the  community  outside  the 
school.  The  whole  subject  may  be  conceived  under  three 
aspects,  to  which  these  divisions  somewhat  closely  corre- 
spond, that  of  the  individual  teacher's  work,  that  of  the 
lawmakers'  duty,  and  that  of  both  as  reciprocally  related 
to  the  community. 

The  organization  and  administration  of  the  individual 
school  must  be  in  the  main  the  work  of  the  individual 
teacher.  No  matter  how  well  the  school  system  may  be 
planned,  no  matter  how  elaborate  the  care  with. which  the 
state  and  local  authorities  attempt  to  direct  the  work 
of  the  schools,  it  is  after  all  the  teacher  who  makes  the 
school  an  effective  agency  of  education,  or  defeats  the 
best  efforts  of  others  to  do  so. 

On  the  other  hand,  .the  teacher  works  most  efficiently 
when  the  school  is  a  part  of  a  well  organized  system. 
The  creation  of  such  a  system  is,  of  course,  the  work  of 
the  state  or  city,  acting  through  its  representatives.  And 
these  representatives  should  as  closely  study  the  laws  of 
educational  economy  in  order  to  an  intelligent  enactment 
of  laws  governing  a  system  of  schools,  as  they  should 


lO  INTRODUCTION 

study  political  economy  in  order  to  an  intelligent  enact- 
ment of  laws  governing  the  business  ^nd  political  interests 
of  the  community. 

But  when  the  people  of  a  community  have  secured  the 
enactment  of  laws  creating  a  desirable  school  system, 
the  work  of  public  education  has  scarcely  begun.  There 
must  be  close  and  sympathetic  watchfulness  by  the  public 
of  its  schools,  teachers,  and  school  officers,  and  a  constant 
readiness  to  increarse  the  efficiency  of  all  these  by  correlat-  / 
ing  with  them  all  the  educational  factors  of  the 
community. 


ECONOMY  IN    EDUCATION 


I.     ORGANIZATION    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF 
THE  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOL 

(i)  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  on  all  sides  an  awakening  of 
sympathetic  interest  in  the  problems  of  the  rural  school. 
There  are  no  others  more  important  or  more  insistent 
demanding  solution  at  the  hands  of  educators  to-day.  No 
apology  is  necessary  for  devoting  much  space  herein  to 
the  schools  in  which  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  school  pop- 
ulation of  the  United  States  receive  their  elementary  edu- 
cation. 

A.  Equipment 

(a)  Grounds  and  Buildings^ 
Healthfulness  and  Beauty. —  The  first  requisite  in  the 
material  environment  of  a  school  is  healthfulness,  and  the 
second  is  beauty,  one  of  the  elements  of  beauty  being 
adaptation  to  an  end.  These  two  carry  with  them  a 
third,  comfort.  To  say  that  a  schoolhouse  should  have 
a  well  drained  site,  a  solid  and  water-tight  foundation, 
and  facilities  for  thorough  heating  and  ventilation,  as 
well  as  protection  against  the  summer  sun,  is  to  utter 

*  Burrage  and  Bailey's  "School  Sanitation  and  Decoration'*;  Shaw's 
"School  Hygiene";  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  (N.  E.  A.,  1895); 
Iowa  Stale  Report,  Nov.  '99;  N.  E.  A.  Report,  1897:  306,  996;  "The  Ideal 
School  House,"  World's  Work,  2:  866;  "  Sanitary  Legislation  for  Schools," 
Report  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  '93-4,  2:  1301;  State  Report  of  Michigan,  1897. 

II 


12 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


commonplaces,  but  commonplaces  to  a  realization  of 
which  many  rural  communities  have  not  yet  attained. 
And  almost  nowhere  is  hearty  recognition  given  to  the 
just  claim  that  school  surroundings  should,  if  they  do  not 
foster,  at  least  not  offend,  the  aesthetic  taste.  Even  the 
special  Committee  of  Twelve,  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  who  considered  it  well  worth  while 
to  enter  into  minute  detail  regarding  the  structure,  heat- 
ing, and  sanitation  of  the  rural  schoolhouse,  had  next  to 
nothing  to  say  about  the  beautifying  of  either  grounds 
or  room. 

Explanations  and  General  Specifications 

Site  and  Position  of  House. —  Where  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  choice,  a  site  should  be  selected  which  affords 
good  drainage,' and  is  near  no  source  of  infection  for  air 
or  water.  As  picturesque  a  spot  as  possible  should  be 
chosen.  One  of  the  marked  advantages  of  country 
schooling  is  the  opportunity  afforded  for  a  cultivation  of 
the  aesthetic  taste. 

The  building  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  protected 
from  the  north  winds  by  means  of  trees  or  a  rise  of 
ground,  when  these  are  available,  and  it  should  look  to 
the  south;  that  is,  the  windows  should  be  in  the  south 
side,  thus  to  secure  better  light  and  greater  warmth  in 
the  winter.  In  some  sections  of  this  country,  however, 
local  conditions  demand  just  the  reverse  of  this;  the 
schools  are  taught  mainly  in  the  summer  and  early  fall 
months,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  houses  may  bet- 
ter have  the  northerly  outlook. 

Fences  and  Entrances. —  Often,  in  sparsely  settled 
communities,  it  is  just  as  well  to  have  no  fence,  and  to  let 
the  schoolhouse  stand  in  the  midst  of  the  natural  grove 
or    on  top  of  the  picturesque  hill,  without  inclosure  of 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


13 


any  kind.  The  natural  environment  is  quite  attractive 
enough  without  any  special  yard  boundary  within  which 
to  confine  the  ornamentation  of  grounds.  Neither  is  there 
need  of  .  a  fence  in  thickly  settled  communities,  where 
stock  laws  are  vigorously  enforced,  the  sole  reason  for  a 
fence  being  found  in  the  fact  that  the  yard,  if  set  with 
flowers  or  plants,  should  be  protected  from  the  depreda- 
tions of  straying  animals. 

But  if  fences  are  built  they  should  be  of  the  strongest 
and  simplest  construction,  with  stout  and  well  hung  gates. 

The  Yard. —  Without  waiting  for  a  formally  an- 
nounced "  Arbor  Day  "  the  children  should  be  encouraged 
to  set  out  and  take  care  of  native  trees,  ferns,  mosses, 
and  vines.  The  real  sense  of  communal  possession  and 
social  continuity,  as  contrasted  with  a  selfish  and  evanes- 
cent individuality,  has  but  recently  begun  to  take  posses- 
sion of  us  in  this  country.  The  man  who  suggests  plant- 
ing shade  trees  along  the  highway  for  the  benefit  of 
travelers  yet  to  come  was,  until  very  recently,  more  apt 
to  be  laughed  at  than  encouraged.  An  indifference  to 
any  but  one's  own  present  wants  has  long  stood  in  the 
way  of  a  beautification  of  public  property.  Teachers 
should  see  their  opportunity  and  duty  in  this  matter,  and 
they  and  their  pupils  should  take  pride  in  leaving  the 
school  yard  in  better  condition  than  they  found  it. 

The  county  or  township  superintendent  will  find  it  well 
worth  his  while  to  offer  some  sort  of  prize  for  the  school 
that  makes  the  greatest  improvement  in  the  appearance 
of  the  school  yard  during  a  term.  The  teacher  will  find 
it  a  plan  repaying  a  trial  to  appoint,  from  his  pupils,  a 
**  hold  over ''  committee  on  care  of  house  and  grounds, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  keep  a  general  supervision  of 
the  schoolhouse  and  school  yard  during  vacation,  and  to 


14  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

see  that  the  premises  are  in  good  condition  for  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  term  of  school.  This  committee,  with 
a  Httle  encouragement,  would  plant  flowers,  and  tend 
them  through  the  summer,  in  order  to  have  an  attractive 
yard  by  the  opening  of  school. 

But,  at  the  same  time,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
if  no  other  playground  is  accessible,  the  right  of  the  chil- 
dren to  the  school  yard  for  purposes  of  legitimate  play 
should  not  be  unwisely  abridged. 

The  Schoolhouse. —  There  is  no  excuse  or  justifica- 
tion for  the  unsightly  boxes  with  sloped  roofs  that  pass 
for  country  schoolhouses  in  most  parts  of  the  land. 
With  but  little  more,  or  with  no  more,  money  than  is  now 
spent  on  these  unsesthetic  structures,  one-room  houses  of 
simple  and  tasteful  architecture  could  be  erected.  It  is 
true  economy  in  every  case  to  get  an  architect  to  prepare 
the  plans,  but  in  the  event  that  this  can  not  be  done, 
recourse  should  be  had  to  some  of  the  ready-prepared 
plans  so  easily  obtained.  Excellent  ones  will  be  found  in 
Circular  No.  3,  1891,  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  and  in  the  Iowa  State  Report  of  1899. 
Nearly  any  other  sort  of  architectural  contrivance  is 
preferable  to  the  plain  rectangular  box  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  roof,  which  has  so  long  and  so  inefficiently  done 
duty  as  a  country  schoolhouse. 

The  outside  walls  should  be  painted  or  stained  in  some 
quiet  color  either  blending  or  contrasting  harmoniously 
with  the  setting  of  the  house.  Harsh,  glaring,  pro- 
nounced colors  should  be  avoided. 

The  aim  throughout  should  be  to  set  an  object  lesson 
before  pupils  and  patrons,  so  they  will  say  with  deep 
pride,  "  That  is  otir  schoolhouse,"  instead  of  "  That  is 
the  schoolhouse." 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  15 

Foundation. —  This  should  be  of  stone ;  bricks  are 
too  absorbent  of  moisture.  If  stone  is  too  expensive, 
then  well-seasoned  posts,  charred  or  tarred,  will 
serve,  but  they  should  be  closely  boarded  over.  In  any 
circumstances,  the  foundation  should  be  made  as  nearly 
moisture-proof  as  possible. 

Entrances. —  It  is  best  to  have  two  entrances  to  the 
schoolhouse,  one  for  boys,  the  other  for  girls,  and  eacl; 
entrance  should  lead  directly  into  a  cloakroom,  from 
which  exit  may  be  had  into  the  schoolroom,  through  a 
swinging  door.  Each  entrance  way  should  be  protected 
by  a  porch  or  stoop,  where  should  be  placed  both  a  foot 
scraper  and  foot  wiper,  special  care  being  taken  to  see 
that  the  children  use  these  articles  thoroughly. 

Cloakrooms. —  The  house  should  be  planned  large 
enough  to  allow  a  space  at  least  six  feet  wide  and  run- 
ning the  entire  width  of  the  building,  to  be  set  aside  for 
cloakrooms.  There  should  be  a  solid  partition  between 
the  two  cloakrooms  and  each  should  open  directly  into 
the  schoolroom.  In  each  cloakroom  there  must  be  a 
good  supply  of  hooks,  and  two  shelves  about  4^  feet 
from  the  floor  running  entirely  around  the  room.  There 
should  also  be  an  umbrella  holder;  a  joint  of  ten  inch 
glazed  pipe,  jclosed  at  one  end,  serves  admirably  and  is 
very  cheap.  The  drainage  from  wet  umbrellas  should 
never  be  permitted  to  run  on  the  floor. 

A  wash  stand,  a  basin  and  pitcher  of  some  non-break- 
able material,  and  a  roller  towel,  are  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  equipment  of  the  cloakroom. 

Floor. —  The  floor  should  be  double,  i.  e.,  closely  fit- 
ted narrow  flooring  laid  upon  a  first  floor  of  wider  boards 
with  thick  carpet  paper,  or  something  better,  between.  A 
floor  with  cracks  and  gaping  seams,  admitting  streams 


l6  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  cold  air,  is  far  from  economical.  The  surface  should 
be  finished  with  some  sort  of  durable  and  smooth  floor 
varnish ;  a  floor  that  can  not  be  freed  of  dust  and  dirt  is 
ultimately  expensive.  The  best  modern  sanitation  de- 
mands, also,  that  wood  floors  in  all  public  buildings  shall 
not  be  dry-swept,  but  oiled  and  wiped  or  brushed. 

Walls. —  These  may  be  of  any  material  suited  to  the 
foundation.  A  most  comely  and  serviceable  schoolhouse 
may,  in  fact,  be  built  of  logs  from  the  ground  up,  and  will 
be  far  more  comfortable  than  a  building  clapped  together 
out  of  unseasoned  boards.  Within,  the  wall  surfaces 
should  be  too  smooth  and  hard  to  hold  microbe-bearing 
dust,  but  should  be  finished  without  glare,  in  some  quiet 
restful  tint,  preferably  a  light  gray  with  a  faint  trace  of 
green  in  it.  Eyes  are  too  valuable  to  be  exposed  to  the 
merciless  glint  of  white  walls. 

The  walls  should  meet  floor  and  ceiling  with  a  curve, 
not  at  a  sharp  angle,  so  that  dust  and  dirt  may  be  easily 
removed. 

Windows. —  The  schoolroom  should  be  lighted  from 
one  side  only,  by  several  large  windows  placed  quite  close 
together  and  occupying  a  large  portion  of  one  wall. 
They  should  begin  about  three  feet  from  the  floor  and 
extend  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ceiling.  The  win- 
dow surface  should  be  from  one  sixth  to  one  fourth  of 
the  floor  surface,  and  the  windows  should  run  up  as  high 
as  possible  so  that  the  opposite  dead  wall  may  be  lighted 
fully. 

The  admission  of  light  may  be  controlled  from  the  in- 
side by  means  of  light-colored,  translucent  shades  rolling 
up  from  the  bottom.  A  very  convenient  shade  is  now 
supplied  by  dealers,  which  both  rolls,  and  slides  up  and 
down  on  vertical  rods.     This  arrangement  permits  of  so 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  s      I? 

adjusting  the  shade  as  to  meet  the  sun's  rays  at*whatever 
angle  they  come.  The  sun's  glare  and  heat  may  be 
controlled  from  the  outside  by  means  of  shutters. 

The  window  sashes  should  fit  closely  and  be  securely 
hung  with  counterweights. 

Air  Space  of  Room. —  The  minimum  air  space  of  a 
schoolroom,  per  pupil,  is  fixed  by  law  in  some  states,  and 
should  be  so  fixed  in  all.  There  should  be  afforded  never 
less  than  200  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  pupil  whose 
name  appears  in  the  school  census  for  a  given  district. 
In  this  way,  allowing  for  an  attendance  always  some- 
what less  than  the  census  enumeration,  there  is  sure  to  be 
enough  space  for  all  who  do  attend.  Such  provision 
would  require  the  ceiling  to  be  at  least  twelve  feet  from 
the  floor,  and  each  pupil  would  have  not  less  than  six- 
teen square  feet  of  floor  space. 

Heating  Apparatus. —  A  good  means  of  heating,  and 
at  the  same  time  ventilating,  one  room  or  many  is  a  hot 
air  furnace  placed  in  the  basement  or  cellar.  Few  rural 
schools  can  afford  this,  however,  and  may  use  with 
nearly  as  good  results  a  ventilating  stove,  which  can  be 
secured  through  any  hardware  dealer.  But  if  for  any 
reason  this  can  not  be  obtained,  the  principle  upon  which 
it  operates  may  be  quite  successfully  applied  to  any  or- 
dinary heating  stove  in  the  following  way:  Select  a 
stove  with  a  wide,  flat  bottom,  and  set  it  up,  without  legs, 
in  a  shallow  box  filled  with  sand.  Bring  the  outer  air  di- 
rectly against  the  lower  part  of  the  fire-bowl,  by  means 
of  a  pipe  passing  through  the  wall  at  the  floor.  The 
outer  end  of  this  pipe  should  be  flush  with  the  outside 
wall  and  covered  with  heavy,  close  wire  netting;  the  in- 
ner end  should  terminate  in  a  sort  of  bonnet  or  hood 
which  will  serve  to  deliver  the  cold  air  directly  upon  the 

Roark's   Econ. — 2 


i8 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


stove.  The  stove  should  be  placed  in  one  end  of  the 
room  quite  near  the  wall,  and  the  pupils  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  direct  radiation  of  heat  by  means  of  a 
semi-cylindrical  shield  of  tin  or  sheet  iron,  which,  by 
reason  of  its  shape,  will  stand  on  end  without  other  sup- 
port, and  which  should  have  wooden  handles  on  the  sides 


□  □  n    n  □ 


BLACK  BOARDS 


□ 


BLACK  BOAROV 


Floor   Plan   of   Schoolroom 

by  which  to  lift  it  about.  By  keeping  the  stove  well 
heated  the  whole  room  will  receive,  by  convection,  a  sup- 
ply of  fresh,  heated  air,  and  yet,  by  reason  of  the  shield, 
pupils  nearest  the  stove  will  experience  no  discomfort. 

It  is  time  the  old  and  long  accepted  way  of  heating 
with  an  unshielded  stove  in  the  middle  of  the  room  should 
be  everywhere  definitely  abandoned.  It  is  a  fruitful 
source  of  discomfort  and  disorder. 

Ventilation. —  The  heating  arrangement  just  described 
provides  for  a  sufficient  inflow  of  fresh  air.  But  there 
must  also  be  a '  correspondingly  free  outflow  of  impure 
air,  and  this  is  best  provided  for  by  passing  a  short  pipe 
from  the  space  between  the  cloakrooms  into  the  safety 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


19 


flue  around  the  stove  pipe,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  By 
this  plan,  currents  of  air  pass  from  the  schoolroom 
through  the  vents  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  and 
after  partially  heating  the  cloakrooms,  and  drying  the 
wraps,  pass  by  the  vents  at  the  bottom  of  the  cloakroom 
partition  walls  into  the  space  between  them,  and  so  up 


^^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^nnnn^rTf 


Plan  for  Warming  and  Ventilating 

the  safety  flue,  which  thus  serves  both  to  protect  against 
an  overheated  stovepipe  and  to  ventilate  the  building. 
(b)   Furniture  and  Apparatus* 

Desks  and  Seats. —  The  furniture  of  a  schoolroom 
should  be  of  the  simplest  and  strongest  make,  with  the 
fewest  possible  fittings  to  get  broken  or  out  of  order. 

The  teacher's  desk  should  be  placed  upon  a  low 
stage,  not  over  ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  at  the  end  of 

•  1  Shaw's   "  School    Hygiene  " ;    Burrage   and    Bailey's   "  School    Sanitation 
and  Decoration";  "Hygienic  Desks,"  Educational  Review,   18:   i,  9. 


20  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  room  opposite  the  entrances.  This  stage  should  be 
so  fitted  to  the  wall  and  floor  as  to  prevent  dirt  from  ac- 
cumulating around  it  and  under  it. 

The  children's  desks  and  seats  must  be  single  and  ad- 
justable. Desk  and  seat  should  be  in  no  way  connected, 
but  each  should  be  separately  screwed  to  the  floor.  The 
trouble  experienced  with  some  patterns  of  adjustable 
seats,  which  a  big  boy  may  work  loose  by  a  few  vigorous 
pushes,  may  be  obviated  by  using  seats  with  a  three- 
toed  pedestal  —  one  toe  projecting  rearward  and  two  at 
a  wide  angle  frontward.  The  greater  the  leverage  the 
chair  has  for  holding,  the  less  the  leverage  the  boy  has 
with  which  to  press  it  loose. 

No  desk  or  seat  should  have  any  hinged  part,  or  any- 
thing about  it  that  can  flap,  slam,  or  creak.  It  may  be 
added  here  that  loose  floor  boards,  creaking  doors,  and 
rattling  windows  should  be  immediately  attended  to; 
sources  of  noise  of  any  kind  should  be  reduced  to  a 
minrimum. 

There  should  be  a  table  of  ordinary  height  about  which 
the  older  pupils  may  quietly  gather  to  consult  books, 
or  to  read  the  periodicals ;  and  a  low  table  for  the  little 
people    is   almost   indispensable. 

Ink  and  Holders. —  The  ink  problem  is  a  serious  one, 
and  promises  to  remain  so.  It  will  not  be  solved  until 
an  ink  holder  is  invented  that  will  not  tip  over,  that 
can  not  be  used  to  make  noise,  and  that  will  not  offer 
temptation  to  the  pupil  to  fill  it  with  chalk  dust  or  paper. 

Blackboards. —  If  the  windows  are  all  on  one  side 
of  the  room,  as  they  ought  to  be,  the  opposite  wall  should 
be  covered  with  blackboard  as  high  as  the  older  pupils 
can  comfortably  reach.  The  blackboard  should  also  ex- 
tend low  enough  to  accommodate  the  little  people. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  21 

A  good  material  for  blackboards  is  a  preparation  sim- 
ilar to  a  heavy  oilcloth  or  linoleum,  which  may  be  cut 
to  any  length  and  fitted  to  any  space.  When  possible, 
the  blackboard  should  lie  flush  with  the  wall  surface,  and 
the  joint  should  be  smoothly  finished.  If  a  strip  of 
molding  is  used  to  cover  the  joint,  the  upper  edge  should 
have  a  very  flat  bevel  so  as  not  to  hold  dust. 

The  ideal  arrangement  for  crayons  and  erasers  is  a 
trough  in  two  sections,  lying  close  against  the  wall  at 
the  lower  edge  of  the  blackboard.  The  upper  section 
should  be  made  of  wire  netting  with  a  mesh  that  will  let 
dust  and  all  pieces  of  crayon  less  than  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  long  drop  into  the  lower  section.  This  lower 
section  should  be  easily  removable,  so  that  it  can  be  taken 
out  and  cleaned  frequently. 

When  really  dustless  and  greaseless  crayons  and  erasers 
come  on  the  market  only  that  kind  should  be  used. 

Maps  and  Globes. —  Only  a  small  equipment  of  maps 
is  necessary.  What  are  needed  should  be  printed  on 
strong  material  and  hung  on  spring  rollers.  The  outfit 
will  vary  to  suit  local  demands,  but  the  following  items 
are  necessary  everywhere:  (i)  A  map  of  the  world,  (2) 
a  map  of  each  hemisphere,  (3)  a  map  of  the  United 
States,  (4)  a  map  of  the  state,  (5)  a  commercial  map, 
which  should  show  clearly  the  standard-time  divisions, 
(6)  a  development  map,  showing  the  territorial  growth 
of  the  United  States. 

Although  not  absolutely  necessary,  two  globes,  costing 
not  over  half  a  dollar  each,  will  be  found  very  useful. 
One  of  them  should  be  an  ordinary  map  globe ;  the  other 
should  have  a  blackened  surface  upon  which  drawing 
may  be  done  with  chalk. 

Rural  school  boards  can  not  be  too  strongly  advised 


52  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

against  wasting  money  in  the  purchase  of  expensive 
globes  and  ''  tellurians." 

Arithmetical  Aids. —  Arithmetic  should  be  taught  ob- 
jectively in  all  classes,  but  the  apparatus  needed,  except 
a  dissected  sphere  and  a  set  of  cube-root  blocks,  can  be 
made  by  the  pupils  under  the  teacher's  direction,  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  measures,  brought  by  them  from  home. 
Even  the  dissected  sphere,  for  illustrating  the  rule  for 
finding  solid  contents,  and  the  cube-root  blocks,  may  be 
made  by  pupils  advanced  enough  to  use  such  apparatus. 
In  fact,  it  should  be  the  teacher's  aim  to  have  the  pupils 
themselves  construct  as  much  of  the  illustrative  appa- 
ratus as  possible  in  all  subjects. 

Lamps. —  If  the  schoolhouse  is  to  be  used  as  a  gather- 
ing place  for  the  purposes  described  later,  it  must  be 
provided  v^ith  means  of  artificial  lighting.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  very  few  rural  schoolhouses  are  supplied 
with  good  lamps;  and  it  is  equally  safe  to  say  that 
any  schoolhouse  so  supplied  is  worth  educationally  fifty 
or  seventy-five  per  cent  more  to  the  community  than  the 
same  house  would  be  without  the  lamps. 

Books  and  Bookcase. —  No  matter  how  freely  the 
school  may  be  supplied  with  books  from  a  traveling  or 
circulating  library,  as  in  Ohio  and  New  York,  it  should 
have  a  permanent  collection  of  books  of  its  own.  Books 
of  reference  are  just  as  properly  classed  as  "  apparatus  " 
as  globes  or  a  set  of  mathematical  blocks.  One  of  the 
prime  purposes  of  a  school  is  to  teach  pupils  to  use  books 
as  tools. 

Every  school  must  have  at  least  an  authoritative  un- 
abridged dictionary  and  a  good  encyclopedia.  As  many 
more  books  of  reference  as  can  be  secured  should  be 
added,  and  a  few  standard  periodicals. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  '23 

But  none  of  these  will  be  of  much  service  unless  proper 
provision  is  made  for  taking  care  of  them.  If  the  school 
owns  but  one  book,  there  should  be  a  bookcase  in  which 
to  keep  it.  No  book  should  ever  be  given  out  without 
being  charged  to  the  pupil  who  takes  it. 

It  would  be  wise  to  provide  a  case  in  the  lower  part  of 
which  could  be  kept  apparatus  and  other  illustrative 
material  when  not  in  use.  One  corner  of  this  case  should 
be  set  aside  to  accommodate  the  item  next  described. 

"  Emergency  "  Medical  Case. —  So  long  as  sports  and 
games  are  what  they  are  on  country  school  playgrounds, 
so  long  will  it  be  advisable  to  have  at  hand  some  simple 
remedies  for  bruised  flesh,  cut  fingers,  sprained  ankles, 
and  possibly  worse  hurts ;  and  any  teacher  would  be  glad 
to  have  within  quick  reach  a  few  of  the  common,  homely 
medicines  for  the  sudden  ills  with  which  children  are 
sometimes  seized.  Such  a  case  should  be  furnished, 
among  other  things,  with  bandages,  courtplaster  and  sur- 
geon's plaster,  arnica,  ammonia  for  bites  and  stings, 
vaseline,  turpentine,  camphor,  an  alcohol  lamp,  and  a  sup- 
ply of  alcohol  for  quickly  heating  water  or  other  liquids. 

Drinking  Facilities. —  The  water  supply  should  be 
most  carefully  provided  and  guarded.  For  country 
schools  a  deep,  driven  well  is  best.  Shallow  wells,  cis- 
terns left  uncared  for  and  stagnant  during  half  the  year, 
and  springs,  unless  most  favorably  situated  and  in  thinly 
settled  regions,  should  not  be  used.  But  whatever  the 
source  of  supply,  it  should  be  carefully  examined  and 
put  in  proper  condition  before  the  opening  of  school. 

The  best  water  vessel  to  be  used  is  a  large,  unglased 
earthen  jar,  set  in  a  plain  box  just  large  enough  for  its 
sides  to  be  tangent  to  the  jar,  and  with  large  holes  bored 
in  the  bottom.     The  jar  should  be  fitted  with  a  good 


24  *  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

cover,  and  should  have  a  self-shutting  faucet.  The  un- 
glazed  walls  of  the  jar  permit  water  to  seep  through 
them,  and  the  evaporation  of  this  from  their  outer  sur- 
faces keeps  the  water  quite  cool  even  on  a  hot  day.  If 
the  jar  can  be  put  where  there  is  no  danger  of  breakage, 
the  box  is  not  needed;  without  it,  the  air  comes  more 
fully  in  contact  with  the  jar. 

The  jar  should  never  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom,  but 
should  be  set,  preferably,  upon  a  stand  or  bracket  in  the 
porch  or  entry.  Each  child  should  have  his  own  drink- 
ing cup,  and  should  use  no  other. 

B.  Organization  and  Administration 
(a)  Grading  and  Grouping  ^ 

The  fact  that  in  a  large  majority  of  country  districts 
the  time  and  energy  of  the  teacher  and  pupils  are  wasted 
through  an  unnecessary  multiplicity  of  classes  is  suffi- 
cient justification  for  saying  something  further  upon  the 
subject  of  the  ungraded,  or,  as  it  has  been  more  prop- 
erly called,  the  "  poly-graded,"  state  of  the  rural  school. 

One  extreme  of  the  ungraded  plan,  or  lack  of  plan, 
exists  in  a  few  remote  districts  even  to-day.  The  teacher 
will  be  found  hearing  at  least  as  many  recitations  daily 
as  he  has  pupils,  and  usually  more;  there  are  no  classes, 
and  each  pupil  comes  up  and  reads  or  "  does  his  sums  " 
as  he  gets  ready  or  is  called. 

The  opposite  extreme  is  found  in  some  of  our  over- 
graded,  hyper-systematized  city  schools.  The  country 
school  may,  if  it  will,  enjoy  a  golden  mean  between  these 
two  extreme  conditions.  The  country  teacher  has  op- 
portunities for  liberty  of  action,  original  initiative  and 
experimentation,  and  freedom  from  deadly  mechanism, 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve   (N.   E.   A.,   1895);  Circular  No.   6, 
1884,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education;  The  Public  School  Journal,  12:307. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  25 

which  his  more  closely  beset  city  brother  may  well  envy 
him.  There  is  room  in  the  management  of  a  country 
school  for  a  flexibility  of  arrangement  and  administra- 
tion that  does  not  seem,  so  far,  to  have  been  attained  in 
city  systems. 

Divisions. —  The  process  of  putting  system  into  the 
country  schools  will  be  facilitated  by  grouping  the  grades 
into  three  divisions  —  Primary,  Intermediate,  and  Ad- 
vanced. Such  an  arrangement  has  the  merit  of  being 
both  correct  in  theory  and  familiar  from  long  usage. 

The  first  or  primary  division,  made  up  of  the  first  three 
grades,  includes  pupils  whose  capacities  are  still  chiefly 
at  the  elementary  acquisition  stage,  and  for  whose  in- 
struction therefore  the  teacher  relies  mainly  upon  their 
interested  contact  with  their  material  environment,  nat- 
ural and  artificial.  The  second  or  intermediate  divi- 
sion, made  up  of  the  second  three  grades,  includes  those 
for  whom  no  less  stress  should  be  laid  upon  acquisitional 
exercises,  but  who  should  begin  to  have  their  assimilative 
powers  more  specifically  called  into  play,  and  their  nor- 
mal muscular  activities  directed  to  consciously  creative 
expressional  work.  The  last  or  advanced  division,  con- 
sists of  the  two  highest  grades,  and  in  this,  without  per- 
mitting either  class  of  the  activities  specifically  operative 
in  the  other  two  to  flag,  the  teacher  should  aim  to  culti- 
vate especially  the  higher  social  feelings  and  their  cor- 
rect expression  in  conduct  &nd  behavior;  and  should  di- 
rect with  increased  care  the  creative  capacities  with  their 
concomitant  expressional  tendencies. 

However,  too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  upon 
psychological  ^  distinctions  between  these  divisions ;  there 
are  no  hard  and  fast  lines  of  demarcation  between  them, 

^  Consult   Roark's  **  Psychology  in   Education,"  p.   252,  et  seq. 


26  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

and  they  are  to  be  used  quite  as  much  upon  grounds  of 
expediency  as  for  psychological  reasons. 

Classifying. —  A  class  is  a  group  of  pupils  of  the  same 
degree  of  advancement  in  a  subject.  Every  school 
should  be  classified  as  closely  as  possible,  for  at  least  two 
reasons  —  ( i )  in  order  to  save  time  and  energy,  and 
(2)  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  profit  by  the  spirit  of 
emulation  engendered  by  class  work. 

Every  pupil  of  normal  capacity  of  body  and  mind 
should  carry  not  fewer  than  four  studies,  and  should 
therefore  be  in  that  number  of  classes.  If  there  are  no 
other  conditions  affecting  the  case,  each  pupil's  studies 
should  be  adapted  to  the  principle  of  correlation  de- 
veloped below,  pp.  211-215.  That  is,  the  pupils  of  Divi- 
sion I.  should  have  at  least  two  specifically  acquisitional 
exercises  daily,  one  assimilational,  and  one  expressional 
in  addition  to  the  incidental  expression  accompanying  all 
exercises.  The  pupils  of  Division  11.  should  have  about 
the  same  assignment  of  subjects,  but  the  emphasis  should 
be  slightly  shifted  so  as  to  rest  somewhat  more  upon  the 
assimilational  and  expressional;  and  those  of  Division 
III.  should  be  led  to  do  more  thinking  and  expressing 
than  they  did  while  in  Divisions  1.  and  II. 

Grading.^ — In  the  present  condition  of  educational 
nomenclature  the  terms  "  grade  "  and  "  grading "  are 
used  with  more  than  one  meaning.  "  Grading  the 
school "  may  mean  placing  the  pupils  in  the  coordinate 
classes  where  they  belong;  or  it  may  mean  marking  off 
the  course  of  study  into  divisions  based  upon  the  rela- 
tion of  one  subject  to  another;  or,  again,  it  may  refer 
to  the  proper  grouping  of  studies  in  successive  years. 

A  grade  is  a  group  of  classes  of  coordinate  rank.     The 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  (N.  E.  A.,  1895),  p.  94. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  27 

distinction  between  a  class  and  a  grade  is  not  observed 
so  closely  as  it  ought  to  be  either  by  those  who  write  of 
these  things  or  by  those  who  organize  school  work. 

A  pupil  is  "  classed "  if  he  is  grouped  with  other 
pupils  doing  the  same  work  in  the  same  branch;  he  is 
"  graded  "  if  he  is  doing  work  of  the  same  degree  of  ad- 
vancement in  several  different  subjects.  Plainly,  then, 
he  may  be  classed  without  being  graded.  The  ideal  con- 
dition is  found  when  the  pupil  is  both  classed  according 
to  his  individual  needs,  and  is  so  graded  as  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum  at 
the  same  level. 

Number  of  grades. —  In  spite  of  efforts,  and  of  the- 
ories that  have  never  reached  the  level  of  effort,  the 
necessary  number  of  grades  remains  at  seven  or  eight. 
The  time  of  a  grade  should  not  be  m6i*e  than  one  year, 
and  in  the  country  schools  it  can  not,  in  the  face  of  pres- 
ent conditions,  very  well  be  less.  There  is  no  way  of 
grouping  which  will  allow  profitable  work  to  be  done  by 
throwing  classes  that  should  be  in  separate  grades  to- 
gether in  regular  study.  The  few  exceptions  that  may 
be  made  support  the  rule.  There  are  other  and  more 
rational  and  effective  ways  of  saving  what  the  rural 
teacher  so  much  needs,  time. 

Advantages  of  Grading. —  Proper  grading  and  classi- 
fying have  other  marked  values  besides  that  of  saving 
time.  In  the  first  place,  the  pupil's  ambition  is  aroused 
to  stay  with  his  grade,  to  allow  nothing  to  make  him  so 
irregular  in  attendance  or  lax  in  effort  as  to  occasion  his 
demotion.  Many  a  pupil  is  held  to  effective  effort  by 
his  simple  determination  not  to  let  another  pupil  get 
ahead  of  him,  although  he  cares  but  little,  at  first,  for 
knowledge  or  school  work  as  such.     There  is  none  of  us. 


28  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

young  or  old,  but  will  go  faster  if  he  has  a  good 
"  pace  maker."  This  stimulus  the  pupil  must  have  in 
order  to  work  effectively,  and  he  will  have  it  if  he  is  well 
classed,  even  though  the  school  is  not  closely  graded. 

But  the  impulse  of  a  larger  ambition  will  be  felt  if  the 
teacher  can  inspire  his  pupils  with  the  love  of  learning, 
can  make  them  lay  hold  upon  the  things  of  the  mind, 
and  if  at  the  same  time  the  school  is  so  __graded  that,  upon 
finishing  the  course  it  offers,  the  pupil  can,  without  hitch 
or  break  in  his  progress,  go  right  on  into  the  higher 
work  of  the  next  school  above.  Even  an  enthusiastic 
teacher  finds  it  difficult  to  fire  the  ambition  of  a  pupil 
to  do  higher  work,  when  progress  through  the  curri- 
culum is  so  irregular  that  an  extra  year  or  two  must  be 
spent  in  bringing  up  work  which  was  neglected  because 
of  poor  grading,  but  which  must  be  completed  before 
admission  can  be  had  into  good  secondary  schools. 

But  in  case  there  is  neither  intention  nor  opportunity 
of  entering  upon  a  higher  course,  the  pupil  nevertheless 
takes  great  satisfaction  in  having  completed  some  definite 
and  rounded  course  of  study,  even  though  it  be  only  ele- 
mentary. In  recognition  of  this  fact,  many  state  systems 
provide  for  the  graduation  of  pupils  from  the  common- 
school  course.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  the  large 
public  room  in  a  little  country  town  packed  with  parents 
who  have  driven  miles  to  be  present  at  the  "  graduation  " 
of  son  or  daughter.  It  is  not  possible  to  estimate  all  the 
helping  force  of  such  an  event,  or  the  evil  •  waste  that 
happens  when  a  pupil,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  enters 
school  in  the  fall  only  to  take  up  the  same  studies  and  go 
over  nearly  the  same  ground  as  in  the  last  term.  Un- 
graded school  work  is  very  apt  to  begin  anywhere  and 
arrive  nowhere. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  29 

Practical  Difficulties  in  Grading. —  In  many  instances 
the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  grading  the  country 
school  are  so  great  that  the  teacher  does  not  even  try  to 
overcome  them,  and  contents  himself  with  "  hearing  les- 
sons "  and  drawing  his  pay.  Often,  the  parents  are  so 
indifferent  and  careless  about  everything  that  touches 
the  real  welfare  of  the  school  that  they  lend  no  en- 
couragement to  any  effort  to  put  school  work  into  or- 
derly arrangement,  and  may  become  actively  hostile  to 
any  attempt  to  do  so,  if  their  children  should  be  "  turned 
back  "  of  prevented  from  taking  whatever  studies  they 
desire.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  father  or 
mother  sends  a  peremptory  note  or  verbal  order  forbid- 
ding the  teacher  to  require  "  Sam  "  or  "  Sara  "  to  pursue 
certain  branches.  The  father  who  thinks  his  son  needs 
no  schooling  beyond  a  little  arithmetic  in  order  success- 
fully "to  run  a  farm,"  the  mother  who  thfnks  it  is  not 
"  nice  "  for  her  daughter  to  study  physiology,  the  over- 
grown boy  who  thinks  composition  and  grammar  dis- 
tinctively feminine  branches  and  will  therefore  have 
neither,  these  are  by  no  means  extinct  species  and  still 
try  the  souls  of  faithful  teachers  who  would  bring  order 
out  of  ungraded  chaos. 

Nor  do  the  teacher's  troubles  with  grading  stop  here. 
He  must  also  contend  with  the  chronic  irregulars,  with 
those  who  attended  a  "  subscription  school "  last  spring, 
and  with  those  who  should  have  been  demoted  long  ago, 
but  who  were  not  because  of  lack  of  backbone  in  his 
predecessors.  And  if  to  all  these  things  there  is  added, 
as  too  often  is  the  case,  the  active  opposition  of  the 
teacher  to  a  system  of  grading,  or  to  system  of  any  kind 
that  requires  real  work  at  his  hands,  then  the  outlook  is 
indeed  gloomy.     But  the  people  of  an  American  com- 


30 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


munity  can  have  anything  they  want,  and  when  they 
come  to  understand  what  a  well  graded  country  school 
means,  and  really  want  it,  they  will  have  it. 

(b)  Suggestive  Scheme  of  Gradation  ^ 

As  indicated  in  a  previous  paragraph,  the  matter  of 
grading  may  be  considered  first  as  to  the  number  of 
grades,  or  steps,  into  which  each  subject  falls  naturally, 
and  second  as  to  the  number  of  studies  and  other  exer- 
cises that  can  economically  be  put  into  each  grade,  or 
year  of  study.  The  following  schedules  representing 
these  two  aspects  are  offered  as  embodying  the  results 
of  actual  experience  in  communities  of  widely  different 
conditions.  The  effort  is  here  made  to  present  something 
suggestive  and  adaptable. 

The  subjects  that  shall  make  up  a  common  school 
curriculum  are  here  taken  for  granted.  The  right  of 
these  subjects  to  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  will  be 
considered   later. 

The  present  discussion  precedes  that  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  school,  because  the  grading  of  school  work 
can  not  be  done  wholly  by  any  one  teacher;  it  is  part 
of  the  life,  the  continuity,  of  the  school,  and  is  ac- 
complished and  maintained  by  successive  teachers ;  while 
the  administration  of  the  organized  school  is  the  work 
of  each  individual  teacher. 

Grade  I. — Chart  Grade"  (4M0  6  recitations  daily;  8  to  10  min- 
utes to  a  recitation.) 

1  Refer  to  Roark's  **  General  Outline  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  5,  et  seq;  Report 
of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  (N.  E.  A.,  1895),  p.  161;  Revised  Course  of 
Study  for  the  Common  Schools  of  Illinois;  **  Uniform  Course  of  Study  of 
Indiana";  Prince's  "Course  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools"  (two 
reports,  1897,  1898,  Boston);  Circular  of  Information  No.  6,  1884  (Bureau 
of  Education,  Washington) ;  McMurry's  **  Course  of  Study  for  the  Eight 
Grades." 

2  For  methods  of  handling  the  work  of  each  grade,  see  Roark's  "  Method 
in  Education." 


THE^ RURAL  SCHOOL  31 

Reading,  with  writing  and  spelling,  twice  daily. 

Arithmetic.  Counting ;  reading  and  writing  figures  ; 
fundamental  operations  to  two  places,  once  daily. 

Geography  and  Nature  Study}  Outdoor,  objective 
oral  instruction,  once  weekly,  combined  with  sim- 
ilar work  in  next  two  grades. 

History  and  Civics.  Simple  stories,  told  and  read, 
with  illustrations  drawn  from  every  day  expe- 
riences, once  weekly,  combined  with  similar  work 
in  the  next  two  grades. 

Language.  Conversations,  with  special  aim  of  secur- 
ing fluency  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Incidental 
correction  of  errors  of  pronunciation,  enunciation, 
and  syntax.  Much  of  this  should  be  done  in  con- 
nection with  the  other  exercises,  but,  if  possible,  a 
special  exercise  should  be  devoted  to  it  at  least 
once  a  Week. 

Drawing  should  be  practiced  in  connection  with  other 
exercises,  especially  nature  study  and  language. 

Vocal  Music,  in  common  with  the  other  grades  of 
the  first  division,  daily. 

Seat  Work^  at  desk  or  table.     Selected  kindergarten 
employments,      cutting     and     folding,      modeling 
familiar  objects  in  clay  and  sand. 
Grade  II. — (4  recitations  daily;   10  to  15  minutes  to  a  recita- 
tion.) 

Reading,  with  spelling  and  writing,  twice  daily. 

Arithmetic.  Fundamental  operations  continued; 
"  wet "  and  "  dry "  measure  and  simple  long 
measure  tables  built  objectively  by  the  pupils,  read- 
ing and  writing  of  simple  fractions,  with  objective 
illustrations;  United  States  small  coins;  Roman 
numerals  to  L. ;  "  information  talks "  upon  quan- 

*  Every  teacher  should  consult,  for  suggestions  in  Nature  Study,  Wil- 
son's "Nature  Study  in  the  Elementary  Schools";  Longman's  "Object 
Lessons";  Jackman's  "Nature  Study  for  the  Common  Schools";  Bert's 
"  First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge  " ;  McMurry's  "  Special  Method  in 
Science";  Hodge's  "Nature  Study  Leaflets"  (Clark  University);  Report 
of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  (N.  E.  A.,  1895),  P.  142;  Needham's  "Out- 
door Studies." 

*With  seat  work  constructive  outdoor  occupations  may  often  be  alter- 
nated  in   all    the   grades. 


^2  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

tities  and  their  expression,   as  dozen,  zveek,  fort- 
night, month,  etc.,  once  daily. 

Other  exercises  as  described  in  Grade  I.,  and  com- 
bined with  those  of  that  grade.  Language  in  this 
grade  should  be  both  oral  and  written.  Simple 
/'information  talks"  in  hygiene  should  be  begun. 
Grade  III. —  (4  recitations  daily,  10  to  15  minutes  to  a  recita- 
tion). 

Reading,  with  spelling  and  writing,  twice  daily. 
There  should  be  a  good  deal  of  supplementary 
reading  in  this  and  the  next  tw^o  grades. 

Arithmetic.  Review,  with  many  practical  drills,  of 
the  number  work  of  previous  grades ;  fundamental 
operations  in  numbers  to  three  places;  addition 
and  subtraction  of  simple  fractions;  simple  ap- 
plications of  arithmetic  to  ordinary  household  af- 
fairs, once  daily. 

Geography.  Modeling  reliefs  in  sand  and  clay;  re- 
view of  geographical  terms  learned  in  previous 
grades ;  map  drawing  and  use  of  wall  maps  begun, 
once  a  week. 

Nature  Study.     Observation  of  leaves,  fruits,  seeds; 

recording    weather    conditions    (daily)  ;    study    of 

"  birds'  habits  and  usefulness,  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Physiology.  "  Information  talks "  continued,  on 
the  senses  and  on  the  hygiene  of  the  skin,  teeth, 
and  hair. 

Other  exercises,  as  described  in  Grade  I.,  carried 
forward  to  suit  the  pupils'  advancement.  Some  of 
the  simplest  sloyd  exercises  may  be  introduced  in 
this  grade.^  Constant  practice  should  be  afforded 
in  both  the  oral  and  written  use  of  English,  based 
on  the  subject  matter  of  other  exercises;  "mem- 
ory gems  "  should  be  introduced. 
Grade  IV. —  (4  recitations  daily,  15  to  20  minutes  to  a  recita- 
tion.) 

Reading.  In  the  Reader  three  times  a  week;  in 
selected  supplementary  reading  twice  a  week. 

^  Refer  to  Reports  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  '92-3,  i:  ii93» 
and  '95-6,  2:  1132;  Compton's  "First  Lessons  in  Wood  Working";  Kirk- 
wood's  "Sewing  Primer";  N.  E.  A.  Reports,  '88:  570;  '89:  104;  '90:  828; 
"•oi:    100,   257. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


33 


Writing  in  copybooks,  or  from  the  teacher's  black- 
board copy,  daily. 

Spelling  from  the  reading  lesson,  daily. 

Arithmetic.  Multiplication  table  completed  and 
drilled  upon ;  tables  of  measures  and  weights  thor- 
oughly learned;  simple  exercises  in  common  and 
decimal  fractions ;  business  forms  and  practical 
problems  drawn  from  the  pupils'  experiences,  once 
daily. 

Grammar.  Oral  lessons  on  the  easier  parts  of 
speech,  illustrated  from  the  reading  lessons,  two 
or  three  times  a  week. 

Geography.  Simple  lessons  with  the  globe,  and  con- 
tinental relief  maps»,  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Nature  Study.  Outdoor  lessons  on  soil,  trees,  in- 
sects (uses  and  disadvantages),  once  or  twice  a 
week. 

Physiology.  "  Information  lessons "  on  the  organs 
of  respiration  —  their  physiology  and  hygiene, 
hygiene  of  eating,  once  a  week. 

Civics.  Oral  lessons,  illustrated  by  current  events, 
once  or  twice  a  week. 

United  States  History.  Stories  told  or  read,  in 
chronological  order,  with  incidental  use  of  the 
map,  once  a  week  or  oftener. 

Language.  Memorizing  and  correct  recitation  of 
short  literary  selections ;  model  letters ;  short  com- 
positions, written  without  special  preparation, 
upon  topics  suggested  by  other  school  work;  care- 
ful drill  upon  the  mechanical  side  of  composition 
(capitals,  punctuation,  spelling,  etc.),  once  or 
twice  a  week. 

Draiving  and  Music  continued  as  before. 

Seat  work.     Elementary  sloyd. 

The  pupils  of  all  grades  should  be  encouraged  and  helped  in 
their  spontaneous  efforts  at  making  things  out  of  school.  There 
should  be  occasional  exhibits  of  such  work. 

Grade  V. —  (4  to  5  recitations  daily,  15  to  20  minutes  to  a  reci- 
tation.) 
Reading.    In  the   Reader  twice  a  week,  alternating 
Roark's  Econ. — 3 


34 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


with  selected  supplementary  reading  three  times  a 
week. 

Writing  as  in  Grade  IV. 

Spelling  as  in  Grade  IV.  Special  attention  to  spell- 
ing in  all  written  work. 

Arithmetic.  Mixed  numbers;  L,  C.  M. ;  square  and 
cubic  measure  (simple  objective  problems)  ;  per- 
centage begun;  practice  to  make  fundamental  pro- 
cesses automatic,  once  daily. 

Grammar.  Incidental  to  the  reading  and  to  all  lan- 
guage work.     No  text-book. 

Geography.     First  half  of  text-book,  once  daily. 

Nature  Study.  Observation  and  record  of  habits 
of  plants  and  animals ;  verification  of  weather 
proverbs,  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Physiology.  Oral  lessons  in  the  anatomy  and  phys- 
iology of  osseous  and  muscular  systems;  hygiene 
of  exercise,  once  or  twice  a  week. 

United  States  History  combined  with  civics.  Ele- 
mentary text,  or  lessons  as  suggested  in  Grade  IV., 
once  or  twice  a  week. 

Language.  "  Memory  gems  "  once  a  week ;  written 
exercises  and  simple  compositions  in  connection 
with  other  work,  especially  nature  study. 

Drawing  mainly  in  connection  with  other  work. 

Vocal  music  mainly  at  opening  exercises  and  rest 
periods. 

Sloyd,  in  some  form  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the 
school. 
Grade  VL — (4  to  5  recitations,  20  minutes  to  the  recitation.) 

Reading.  Selections  from  literature  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  Regular  use  of  Readers  discon- 
tinued. 

Spelling  as  in  last  grade ;  oral  spelling  drill  with  two 
upper  grades  once  a  week. 

Writing.  Practice  for  speed  and  legibility  three 
times  a  week. 

Arithmetic.  Proportion;  simple  interest;  computa- 
tions of  the  farm  and  market,  once  daily.  Special 
attention  should  be  given  to  securing  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  rapidity. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL.  35 

Grammar.  Good  text-book  combining  much  practice 
in  language  with  some  technical  grammar,  once  daily. 

Geography.     Text-book  completed,  once  daily. 

Nature  Study.  Observation  work  continued  as  in- 
dicated in  Grade  V. ;  simple  experiments  in  physics 
once  a  week.^ 

Physiology.  Elementary  text-book,  or  oral  lessons 
on  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  digestive 
system^  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Other  exercises  as  described  for  Grade  V. 
Grade  VII. —  (4  to  5  recitations,  20  minutes  to  a  recitation.) 

Reading.  Selected  literature,  with  class  discussions, 
once  a  week. 

Spelling  as  in  Grade  VI. 

Writing  as  in  Grade  VI.,  twice  a  week.  Careful  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  penmanship  of  all 
written  exercises,  whether  on  blackboard  or  paper. 

Arithmetic.  Review  and  drill  for  accuracy  and 
rapidity;  interest  continued;  simple  problems  in 
square  and  cube  root;  applications  in  various  in- 
dustries, once  daily. 

Grammar  as  in  Grade  VI.;  diagramming  of  easy 
sentences,  once  daily. 

Geography.  No  text-book  needed;  applied  geog- 
raphy in  current  events.^ 

Nature  Study.  Observation  and  record  of  the  life 
history  of  some  living  thing,  plant,  animal ;  illus- 
trated oral  lessons  on  the  simple  machines  (pupils 
should  make  the  machines),  twice  a  week. 

Physiology.  Elementary  text-book  taken  up  and 
completed,  once  daily. 

U.  S.  History.  Text-book  begun;  geography  refer- 
ences and  drawing  of  illustrative  maps  made  prom- 
inent, once  daily. 

Civics  incidental  to  history. 

Language.  Forensic  exercises  weekly;  written  work 
as  in  previous  grades. 

Other  exercises  as  in  Grade  V. 

^  Refer    to    Cooley's    "Experiments    in    Physical     Science";     Holbrook's 
'New    Method";    Trowbridge's    "Physical    Science   at   Home." 
2  Roark's  "  Method  in  Education,"  p.   190. 


« 


36  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Grade  VIII. — (4  recitations,  20  to  25  minutes  to  a  recitation.) 

Reading  as  in  Grade  VII.,  perhaps  less  often.  The 
aim  in  the  two  highest  grades  should  be  to  culti- 
vate a  knowledge  and  love  of  good  literature. 

Spelling  as  in  last  grade. 

Writing  only  in  connection  with  written  work  in 
other  subjects. 

Arithmetic.  Simple  algebra  introduced;  geometric 
forms  and  terms;  mensuration,  once  daily. 

Grammar.  Text-book  in  grammar;  parsing  and  dia- 
gramming, once  daily. 

Geography  as  in  Grade  VII. 

Elementary  Science.  Simple  experiments  in  physics 
and  chemistry;  review  of  physiology  with  oral 
lessons  on  domestic  sanitation,  once  or  twice  a 
week. 

U.  S,  History.    Text-book  completed,  once  daily. 

Civics.  Elementary  text-book  taken  up  and  com- 
pleted, or  subject  combined  with  history,  as  in 
Grade  VII. 

Language  2iS  in  Grade  VIL,  with  special  attention  to 
forensics.^ 

Other  exercises  as  before. 

The  gradation  of  the  curriculum  just  outlined  may  be 
called  "  ideal "  only  in  the  sense  that  it  v^ill  probably 
not  be  realized  in  actual  practice.  But  a  critical  study 
of  it  will  show,  it  is  believed,  its  adaptability  to  almost 
any  local  conditions.  If  the  school  is  made  up  mainly 
of  young  pupils,  the  higher  grades  of  work  will  not  be 
needed,  and  more  time  can  be  given  to  the  lower.  If  the 
school  has  pupils  properly  classifiable  in  each  grade,  the 
alternation  of  some  of  the  heaviest  work  of  the  upper 
three  grades  may  be  practiced.^  Classes  may  recite  on 
alternate  days,  or  some  grades  may  be  organized  only 

^  Roark's   "  Method  in   Education,"  p.   318. 

2  Consult  the  "  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  "  (N.  E.  A.,  1885), 
p.  94,  et  seq.;  Revised  Course  of  Study,  Ills.,  introduction;  County  Super- 
intendents* Monthly   (Fremont,  Neb.),  vol.  3,  p.  8;  vol.  5,  p.  296. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  37 

in  alternate  years.  If  the  school  is  over-crowded,  as  is 
the  case  in  many  districts  of  the  South,  where  one  teacher 
often  has  charge  of  from  forty-five  to  seventy-five  pupils, 
and  the  community  will  not  or  can  not  provide  for  a 
salaried  assistant,  the  plan  of  pupil  help  (the  Lancas- 
terian  system)  may  be  very  profitably  employed.  See 
page  69. 

(c)  Taking  Charge 

The  following  suggestions  may  seem  unnecessary,  but 
they  have  proved  helpful  to  more  than  one  young  and 
inexperienced  teacher,  and  when  it  is  remembered  that 
from  a  fourth  to  a  third  of  the  teachers  who  go  into  tlie 
schoolroom  each  year  are  there  for  the  first  time  as 
teachers,  no  apology  seems  needed  for  introducing  these 
matters  into  this  division  of  the  subject,  designed  prima- 
rily for  the  teachers  of  elementary  rural  schools. 

Selecting  a  Boarding  Place. —  Even  the  selection  of  a 
boarding  place  calls  for  the  exercise  of  care  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  going  into  a  community  for  the  first  time 
to  make  his  home  there  through  a  term  of  school. 

He  should  remember  that  he  must  be  a  hard-working 
student,  and  therefore  needs  quiet  surroundings,  a  private 
room  well  lighted  and  heated,  and  an  atmosphere  of 
culture,  in  which  to  spend  his  time  when  not  in  the 
schoolroom.  He  owes  it,  then,  to  himself  and  to  his 
pupils  to  secure  accommodations  with  a  family  that  can 
fully  meet  these  reasonable  requirements,  a  family  of 
substantial  means,  of  unquestioned  standing  in  the  com- 
munity, whose  members  care  at  least  as  much  for  books 
and  magazines  as  for  "  parties "  and  other .  neighbor- 
hood excitements. 

Getting  Acquainted. —  In  states  where  the  directors 
(or  trustees)  are  required  by  law  to  visit  the  parents  of 


38  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  district  before  school  opens,  the  teacher  should,  if 
possible,  go  with  them.  But,  while  it  is  better  for  the 
teacher  to  be  in  company  with  the  school  officials  when 
visiting  the  parents  for  the  first  time,  still  if  he  must  go 
alone  he  had  much  better  do  so  than  not  to  call  upon  the 
parents  at  all  before  school  opens.  A  grave  drawback 
to  the  highest  efficiency  of  the  rural  school  is  the  lack 
of  acquaintanceship,  and  therefore  of  sympathy  and  co- 
operation, between  parents  and  teacher.  The  tactful 
teacher  can  do  much,  by  this  preliminary  visiting,  to  win 
the  parents  from  the  attitude  of  indifference,  not  to  say 
suspicion  or  semi-hostility,  with  which  they  are  apt  to 
start  their  children  into  a  new  term  of  school  under 
an  untried  teacher. 

While  on  this  topic  it  is  well  to  say  that  the  visiting 
of  parents  by  the  teacher  should  not  stop  with  this.  It 
should  be  done  from  time  to  time  throughout  the  term, 
not"  in  any  formal  or  perfunctory  way,  but  cordially, 
sympathetically,  helpfully.  The  proper  carrying  out  of 
this  suggestion  will  smooth  away  many  a  wrinkle. 

Although  no  one  would  care  to  see  a  revival  of  the  old 
custom  of  the  teacher's  "boarding  'round,"  yet  it  af- 
forded excellent  opportunities  for  the  blending  of  home 
and  school  influences,  and  for  extending  the  teacher's 
helpfulness  beyond  the  schoolroom. 

Inspection  of  Grounds  and  Buildings. —  Before  be- 
ginning the  work  of  the  term  the  teacher  will  do  wisely 
to  see  that  all  promised  repairs  to  the  schoolhouse  and 
grounds  have  been  made^  and  that  everything,  within  and 
without,  has  been  put  into  proper  condition  for  a  good 
opening  of  the  school.  He  should  especially  examine 
the  water  supply,  the  closets,  and  the  blackboards. 

Opening  School:  the  First  Day. —  There  is  only  one 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  39 

Other  day,  the  last,  that  is  more  important  than  the  first 
one  of  the  term.  To  begin  well  is  to  diminish  greatly 
the  possible  wear  and  tear  of  school  work,  by  engaging 
interest  and  inhibiting  disorder  from  the  first.  To  end 
well  is  to  secure  pardon  for  many  errors  and  shortcom- 
ings that  may  have  marked  the  passing  of  the  term.  To 
close  brilliantly  after  a  whole  term  of  successful  work,  is 
to  "  set "  psychologically  the  results  of  that  work,  as  the 
dyer  "  sets  "  a  color. 

For  the  first  day  of  school  the  teacher,  especially  if  he 
be  new  in  that  community  and  most  especially  if  he  be 
also  assuming  charge  of  his  first  school,  must  make,  be- 
forehand, most  careful  and  detailed  plans.  No  one  can 
more  quickly  or  surely  detect  inability  to  handle  a  situa- 
tion than  children,  and  if  the  teacher  shows  incapacity 
and  confusion  during  the  first  half  hour  of  school  it  will 
take  him  many  anxious  days  to  get  matters  well  in  hand, 
if  indeed  he  can  do  so  at  all. 

The  best  possible  remedy  for  the  embarrassment  which 
the  new  teacher  can  not  avoid  feeling  is,  in  addition  to 
having  a  clear,  definite  plan  and  adhering  to  it,  to  lose 
his  self-consciousness  in  a  genuinely  sympathetic  inter- 
est in  the  pupils. 

The  teacher  must  be  at  the  schoolhouse  early  on  the 
first  day,  and  meet  each  pupil  at  the  door  or  on  the  play- 
ground, with  something  pleasant  to  say  and  with  sincere 
interest  in  whatever  individualizes  him.  Particularly 
must  care  be  taken  to  learn  names ;  nothing  else  gives 
the  teacher  quite  such  a  ready  hold  upon  a  pupil  as  to 
be  able  without  hesitation  to  call  his  name  correctly  from 
the  first,  and  to  show  quick  sympathy  with  whatever 
idiosyncrasy  he  has. 

The  teacher's  plan  for  the  first  day  should  include  (i) 


40  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

well  conducted  opening  exercises  of  song,  devotions,  and 
a  short,  inspiring  talk;  (2)  the  prompt  assignment  of 
every  pupil  to  new  and  interesting  work;  (3)  the  con- 
ducting of  regular  recitations,  at  least  during  the  after- 
noon; (4)  the  quiet  assumption  that  everything  will  go 
smoothly;  and  (5)  the  calm  but  prompt  suppression  of 
the  first  tendencies  to  disorder.  If  such  a  plan  can  be 
successfully  carried  out  the  first  day  the  battle  is  more 
than  half  won. 

No  matter  if  the  teacher  closes  the  first  day  in  a  con- 
dition bordering  on  nervous  collapse,  it  should  be  his 
pleasure  as  it  certainly  is  his  duty,  to  take  care  that  every 
pupil  has  made  at  least  two  recitations,  and  goes  home 
feeling  that  his  personality  has  been  recognized,  ready 
to  say  of  the  new  teacher  "  He'll  do."" 

(d)   Conducting  the  School 

The  problem  of  successfully  conducting  the  school  is 
in  the  main,  one  for  the  teacher  to  solve  alone.  No  mat- 
ter what  may  be  the  material  equipment  of  the  school, 
no  matter  how  carefully  the  plan  of  grading  has  been 
formulated,  no  matter  how  earnest  and  sympathetic  the 
community  may  be  in  helping,  the  school  will  be  a  fail- 
ure, if  the  teacher  has  not  power  and  will  to  make  things 
work  together  for  success.  It  is  for  the  teacher  to  re- 
move, as  far  as  possible,  all  provocations  to  disorder,  and 
to  cultivate  assiduously  everything  that  helps  good  order 
and  good  work.  Upon  this  point  are  focused  all  the 
efforts  of  educational  economy  for  the  individual  school. 

Granting  to  correct  method  all  the  importance  to  which 
it  is  justly  entitled,  still  the  fact  remains  that  the  proper 
management  of  the  school  is  even  more  important.  The 
best  method  of  teaching  a  given  subject  can  not  take 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  4I 

effect  upon  a  mismanaged  school;  but  pupils  trained  to 
good  school  economies,  good  school  habits,  by  proper 
management,  have  that  which  will  be  of  far  more  value 
to  them  than  merely  knowledge  of  the  branches  studied. 
Pupils  trained  to  habits  of  attention,  industry,  prompti- 
tude, and  accuracy,  will  learn,  method  or  no  method.  It 
is  the  inability  to  do  economical  work,  to  grasp  and  ad- 
minister details,  and  to  get  their  pupils  to  do  so,  that 
causes  so  many  teachers  to  fail,  just  as  it  causes  people 
in  any  other  business  to  fail. 

General  Principles  of  Management 

The  Less  "Machinery"  the  Better.— The  school 
should  run  with  as  little  machinery  as  possible,  and  that 
little  must  go  very  smoothly,  without  creak  or  jar.  All 
routine  movements  must  become  automatically  correct 
early  in  the  term. 

Relations  of  Teacher  and  Pupils. —  The  teacher 
must  stand  to  the  pupil  as  a  sympathetic,  kindly, 
wise  and  helpful  friend.  He  should  begin  the  term  by 
eliminating  harshness  and  suspicion;  as  certainly  as  he 
assumes  that  the  pupils  are  ready  and  anxious  to  do  wrong, 
so  certainly  will  they  do  what  seems  to  be  expected  of 
them.  Let  the  assumption  be  that  the  boys  and  girls 
will  behave  well,  and  will  work  if  their  work  is  attrac- 
tive and  helpful;  let  it  be  taken  for  granted  that,  unless 
the  physical  or  psychical  environment  causes  irritation, 
the  conduct  of  the  pupils  will  be  that  of  well-conducted 
busy  people  anywhere.  Very  much  is  to  be  gained  by 
this  attitude  of  the  teacher.  If  he  will,  from  the  first 
moment  of  contact  with  his  pupils,  put  the  stress  upon 
happy  activity,  upon  the  work  and  their  common  interest 
in  it,  and  not  upon  his  own  authority  as  a  sort  of  police- 


42  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

man,  the  most  difficult  problem  of  the  school  will  be  al- 
most solved. 

By  intelligent  sympathy,  by  quick  appreciation  of  the 
pupil's  difficulties  and  capacities,  by  the  exhibition  of  a 
genuine  enthusiasm  for  the  work  of  the  school,  by  court- 
eous bearing,  having  in  kindly  respect  each  child's, per- 
sonality, the  teacher  can  have  the  spirit  of  the  school 
with  him  instead  of  against  him,  can  create  an  atmos- 
phere which  the  evil  doer  will  find  hard  to  breathe. 

No  Rules. —  One  way  of  simplifying  school  govern- 
ment is  to  publish  no  "  rules."  When  a  list  of  rules  is 
read  and  posted  up,  the  ingenuity  of  at  least  some  of  the 
pupils  is  stimulated  thereby  to  devise  the  doing  of  things 
that  are  not  prohibited  by  the  rules  but  which  are,  never- 
theless, infractions  of  good  order  and  good  work.  The 
teacher's  hands  are  tied  by  his  "  rules,"  for  if  the  things 
named  therein  are  punishable,  then  any  school  boy's  logic 
is  equal  to  positing  the  converse,  that  things  not  named 
therein  are  not  punishable.  Every  child  old  enough  and 
with  sense  enough  to  go  to  school  at  all  knows  how  to 
behave  there,  and  needs  no  "  rules  "  to  tell  him. 

Unhampered  by  rules,  the  teacher  is  free  to  decide 
each  case  of  order  upon  its  individual  merits. 

The  Teacher's  Example. —  The  fact  can  hardly 
have  too  much  iteration,  that  the  personality  of  the 
teacher  is  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  making  or  spoil- 
ing of  the  school.  If  the  teacher  is  tardy  often,  no 
amount  of  prodding  will  make  the  pupils  come  on  time. 
If  the  teacher  lounges  behind  his  desk,  and  is  indifferent 
to  neatness  in  his  personal  appearance,  the  pupils  will 
sprawl  and  be  untidy.  If  the  teacher  is  rude,  or  boorish, 
or  discourteous,  the  pupils  are  thereby  deprived  of  an 
opportunity  to   grow   into  good   manners.     Unless   the 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL.  43 

teacher  is  alert,  active,  enthusiastically  interested,  and  has 
some  exact  scholarship,  if  only  in  an  elementary  way, 
the  pupils  will  work  perfunctorily,  getting  nothing  but  a 
little  superficial  book  knowledge,  which  amounts  to  no 
more  than  a  thin  veneer. 

But,  above  all,  or  rather  superadded  to  all,  the  teacher 
must  have  love  for  his  pupils  and  for  his  work ;  without 
this,  even  having  all  the  others,  he  is  sounding  brass  and 
a  tinkling  cymbal. 

Self-government  the  only  Real  Government. —  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  for  an  instant  that  the  aim  of  the 
public  school  is  to  produce  good  citizens,  and  that  the 
good  citizen  in  a  republic  must  be  able  to  behave  well. 
It  is  a  truism  that  ninety-nine  hundredths  of  the  business 
of  courts  and  civil  officers  would  be  eliminated  if  every 
one  in  the  community  could  or  would  govern  himself,  his 
impulses,  emotions,  appetites.  All  the  crime  that  is  com- 
mitted in  society  is  directly  traceable  to  a  lack  of  self- 
control.  What  is  true  of  the  individual  is  true  of  the 
state ;  a  free,  self-governing  state  can  not  exist  except  as 
it  is  made  up  of  free,  self-governing  individuals  —  free 
through  conformity  to  law,  self-governing  through  sub- 
jection of  motive  to  the  dominance  of  moral  will. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  to  train  his 
pupils  into  habits  of  self-control  and  ready  obedience,  a 
self-control  and  an  obedience  that  shall  become  more  and 
more  automatic  as  time  goes  on. 

Self-government  through  Motives. —  Conduct,  either 
of  child  or  of  adult,  is  the  result  of  motives.  The  reason 
for  any  course  of  action  is  always  to  be  found  in  the  mo- 
tive that  prompted  it. 

It  is  precisely  at  this  point  that  the  teacher  gains  most 
from  a  practical  psychology,  a  psychology  that  uses  the 


44  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT, 

school  room  as  a  laboratory.  If  he  can  but  know  the 
motives  of  his  pupils  he  can  play  upon  them  as  upon  an 
instrument.  The  teacher's  rule  of  action  here  must  be, 
Appeal  always  to  the  highest  motive  to  which  the  pupil 
mil  respond.  That  motive  in  one  case  may  be  love  of 
approbation,  in  another  fear  of  ridicule,  in  another  per- 
sonal pride,  in  another  ambition,  in  another,  perhaps,  fear 
of  physical  pain.  The  highest  possible  motive  to  right 
action  is  the  Tightness  of  the  action;  the  lowest  possible 
is  the  fear  of  punishment.  Between  these  extremes  the 
teacher  must  range,  always  striving  to  lift  each  pupil  to 
a  habitual  responsiveness  to  the  highest  possible  for  him. 

Punishments 

It  IS  far  better  so  to  conduct  a  school  as  not  to  need  to 
punish  at  all,  and  it  is  very  often  quite  easy  to  do  so. 
But  under  no  circumstances  must  the  pupils  be  allowed 
to  conclude  that  punishment  of  all  kinds  has  been  wholly 
eliminated.  In  no  other  matter  is  a  more  careful  study 
of  the  individual  pupil  needed  than  in  adapting  punish- 
ments to  the  results  sought.  Here  is  another  reason 
for  having  no  set  rules  for  the  school;  punishment  in 
school  must  be  fitted  not  so  much  to  the  transgression 
as  to  the  transgressor,  and  fixed  rules  would  not  admit 
of  this. 

Punishment  by  Deprivation. —  One  chief  aim  of 
school  training  is,  as  was  set  forth  in  a  preceding  para- 
graph, to  give  the  pupil  self-control.  Self-control  con- 
sists, practically,  in  denying  one's  self  an  immediate 
object  of  desire  in  order  to  obtain  a  greater  satisfaction 
later.  Punishment,  then,  should  consist,  whenever  this 
is  possible,  in  some  form  of  deprivation ;  when  the  child 
has  learned  that  he  can  not  enjoy  both  the  immediate 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  45 

and  the  remote  good,  and  that  the  remote  good  is  better, 
and  well  worth  sacrificing  the  near  one  for,  he  has  had 
his  first  lessoh  in  self-control. 

When  it  is  said  that  punishment  should  usually  take 
the  form  of  deprivation  there  is  given  a  reason  why 
under  no  circumstances  should  any  school  duty  be  as- 
signed as  punishment.  The  wise  teacher  prefers  to  man- 
age so  that  school  duties,  even  though  difficult,  should 
be  looked  upon  as  privileges,  and  the  denial  of  a  share 
in  them  as  a  deprivation.  It  is  by  no  means  so  difficult 
as  it  might  seem  to  teachers  who  have  never  tried  the 
plan,  to  bring  the  school  to  a  level  where  it .  shall  be 
deemed  a  punishment  to  refuse  a  pupil  permission  to 
recite  or  to  take  part  in  some  other  exercise.  Surely 
many,  if  not  all,  of  the  exercises  of  the  school  can  be 
made  so  full  of  interest  and  value  that  to  be  shut  out 
from  any  of  them  shall  be  felt  as  a  deprivation. 

Corporal  Punishment. —  In  all  that  has  been  said  so 
far  no  mention  has  been  made  of  whipping.  Present 
sentiment  everywhere,  and  in  some  places  law,  is 
strongly  against  this  mode  of  punishment,. and  the  argu- 
ments against  it  are  familiar  to  everyone.  But  the  fact 
remains  that  some  children  can  not  be  made  to  respond 
to  any  higher  motive  than  fear  of  a  sound  whipping. 
Such  punishment  is  very  rarely  needed,  but  the  bare  pos- 
sibility of  it  is  often  a  wholesome  deterrent,  and  no 
teacher  can  afford  to  let  it  be  understood  that  whipping 
is  abolished. 

Purposes  of  Punishment. —  Punishment  has  two  pur- 
poses or  aims — ^"(i)  to  reform  the  offender,  (2)  to  deter 
others  from  transgressing.  In  the  latter  respect  it  dif- 
fers from  many  other  forms  of  discipline,  using  discipline 
in  its  broad  and  true  meaning,  for  the  effect  of  most 


46  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

disciplinary  measures  should  be  positive,  encouraging 
directly  to  right  doing,  rather  than  negative,  merely  de- 
terring from  wrong  doing. 

The  Teacher's  Relation  to  Punishment. — The  teacher 
must,  as  far  as  possible,  in  administering  punishment,  take 
the  attitude  of  an  impersonal  agent  of  law.  Law-break- 
ing must  be  followed  by  correction,  as  cause  is  followed 
by  effect ;  the  teacher  is  simply  the  medium  through  which 
correction  comes  close  after  evil-doing.  He  must  make 
the  offender  feel  that  punishment  is  the  necessary  and 
inevitable  result  of  any  infraction  of  the  law  inherent  in 
school  life,  and  must  make  it  plain  that  the  law  is  in  the 
real  nature  of  things  and  is  not  a  "  rule  "  made  by  the 
teacher.  Much  of  helpful  suggestion  upon  this  point  will 
be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  Moral  Education  "  in  Spen- 
cer's Essay  on  Education.^ 

Arousing  and  Sustaining  Interest 

But  it  was  the  mistake  of  the  older  educationists  to 
suppose  that  "  school  management  "  is  chiefly  a  matter  of 
discipline  —  using  discipline  in  the  narrow  sense  of  re- 
straints and  punishments.  Discipline  in  its  broader,  truer 
sense  has  a  comparatively  late  acceptance;  and  yet  long 
before  Herbart  many  teachers  knew  that  the  best  "  man- 
agement," the  best  economy  of  work  in  the  individual 
school,  is  through  the  pupils'  interests;  but  all  teachers 
have  known  this  and  have  been  helped  by  it  since  Her- 
bart's  doctrines  have  become  everybody's. 

The  Doctrine  of  Interest.^ — As  at  present  held  by 

^  See  also  "New  York  Teachers'  Monograph**  for  March,  1900;  White's 
"School  Management,"  p.  190;  Tompkins'  "School  Management,"  p.  157; 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  6. 

2  See  Herbart's  "  Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine,"  Chs.  IV.  and  V., 
Sec.    11. ;    DeGarmo's    "  Herbart   and   the   Herbartians,"    Ch.    V. ;    "  Interest 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  47 

those  who  have  thought — and  fought — their  way  through 
the  mass  of  talking  and  writing  upon  the  subject,  the  doc- 
trine of  interest  may  be  stated  in  two  propositions :  ( i ) 
that  the  interests  with  which  the* child  begins  school  life 
must  be  used  as  a  starting  point  from  which  to  direct  his 
activities;  (2)  that  the  teacher  must  use  all  means  to 
arouse  and  sustain  the  pupil's  interest  in  the  work  he  has 
to  do.  The  doctrine  should  not  be  construed  to  mean, 
as  some  of  its  over-zealous  advocates  have  claimed,  that 
the  child's  interests  are  to  be  the  guides  all  the  way,  and 
that  nothing  is  to  be  required  of  him  in  which  he  feels 
no  interest.  The  genuinely  disciplinary  value  of  drudg- 
ery must  not  be  lost  sight  of  —  real,  downright  drudgery. 
This  simply  means  that  it  is  not  always  the  immediate 
interest  that  must  govern;  that  frequently  the  remote 
interest  must  prevail  over  the  present  impulse.  How- 
ever distasteful  the  task,  it  must  be  done  willingly  because 
of  a  strong  and  inspiring  interest  in  that  to  which  the 
drudgery  leads. 

Neither  should  teachers  fall  into  the  error  of  mistaking 
mere  evanescent  and  artificially  induced  impulses  for 
genuine  interest.  Such  impulses  are  only  superficial  tick- 
lings of  the  mind  and  afford  no  real  motive  or  direction 
to  fruitful  activity.  There  is  no  more  ghastly  sight  than 
a  room  full  of  children  galvanized  into  a  feeble  alertness 
by  the  palaver  and  gesticulations  of  a  harassed  teacher 
with  a  professional  waxen  grin,  simulating  an  interest 
she  never  feels. 

Classes  of  Interests. —  The  genuine  interests  are  those 
that  are  rooted  in  the  perception  of  utility,  the  perception 
of  causality,  the  pleasure  of  achievement,  the  enjoyment 

As  Related  to  Will,"  Second  Supplement  to  the  Herbartian  Year  Book, 
1895;  Educational  Review,  ii:  146;  Ziller's  **  Grundlegung  zur  Lehre  vom 
erz.      Unterricht." 


48  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  beautiful,  and  the  various  forms  of  the  social 
instinct. 

Any  pupil  does  better  work  for  understanding  the  ap- 
plication, the  utility,  of  *the  subjects  studied.  If  this  fact 
were  only  made  the  basis  of  curriculum  planning  the 
result  would  be  the  elimination  of  much  that  has  had  a 
prominent  place  for  decades,  and  a  setting  of  much  else 
in  a  different  perspective. 

One  of  the  chief  pedagogical  values  of  nature  study 
is  the  challenge  it  constantly  offers  to  the  desire  to  know 
the  why  and  the  how  —  the  causes  and  reasons  of  things. 
If  this  desire  be  even  slightly  stimulated  and  directed  it 
grows  stronger  through  life  and  leads  ultimately  to  the 
heights  of  research  and  philosophy. 

The  most  unfailing  and  ever  deepening  well-spring  of 
true  interest  is  the  joy  of  achievement,  of  doing  some- 
thing for  the  sake  of  doing  it  —  of  doing  it  well  for  the 
sake  of  doing  it  well;  the  pleasure  of  knowing  in  order 
to  know,  of  overcoming  resistance  for  the  sake  of  having 
conquered.  Until  the  teacher  can  smite  the  rock  of  indif- 
ference and  apathy  and  cause  the  love  of  work  for  work's 
sake  to  gush  forth,  he  may  not  enter  into  his  rightful 
heritage.  School  work  should  not  be  put  down  to  the 
level  of  the  pupils'  superficial  interests,  but  their  deeper 
interests  should  be  lifted  to  the  level  of  duty.  It  is  crim- 
inal to  remove  all  distasteful  tasks  from  the  school  life, 
for  in  that  way  is  the  child  enfeebled  and  unfitted  for  the 
stress  of  life  beyond  the  school. 

As  already  indicated  (and  no  chance  must  be  let  pass 
for  putting  stress  upon  the  matter),  the  school  yard,  the 
schoolhouse,  and  the  furnishings  of  the  room  should  all 
be  of  such  kind  as  to  foster  the  aesthetic  interests  of  pupils 
and  teacher. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  49 

But  all  these  are  individual  interests,  and  to  comple- 
ment them  and  make  them  wholly  sane  and  safe  there 
must  also  be  cultivated  the  social  interests,  the  right  out- 
working of  which  fits  the  man  or  woman  for  the  func- 
tions of  citizenship.  Civic  pride,  true  patriotism,  a  broad 
altruism,  all  these  must  be  given  soil  and  air  in  which 
to  flourish  mightily,  else  the  public  school  fails  of  its 
highest  duty.  How  immeasurably  more  work  for  the 
teacher  to  do  than  merely  to  "  hear  recitations ! " 

There  is  no  surer  way  to  set  the  feet  of  the  young 
upon  the  road  that  leads  to  learning,  to  power,  and  to 
character  than  by  keeping  alive  in  all  its  freshness  and 
vigor  the  capacity  to  become  interested  which,  as  children, 
they  have  in  such  marked  degree. 

But  the  pupils'  interests  can  not  always  be  aroused  by 
direct  efforts  to  reach  them  through  the  content  of  the 
studies ;  and  even  if  they  could,  other  means  should  be 
availed  of  as  well.  Each  interest  should  be  multiple,  and 
should  be  called  out  by  contact  of  the  pupil's  life  with  as 
many  wholesome  things  as  possible.  Therefore  not  only 
should*  the  subject-matter  used  as  a  basis  of  instruction 
be  presented  objectively  and  in  a  way  to  make  the  pupil 
see  its  value  for  practical  life,  but  other  matters  than 
those  found  in  the  usual  prescribed  school  course  of  study 
should  be  introduced  frequently  and  freshly. 

Opening  Exercises. —  It  is  very  regrettable  that  many 
schools  neglect  so  simple  and  efficient  a  means  of  interest- 
ing the  pupils  as  daily  opening  exercises  afford.  When 
carefully  planned  and  intelligently  carried  out  they  con- 
stitute an  effective  remedy  for  tardiness  and  irregularity 
of  attendance;  they  can  be  made  so  attractive  that  the 
pupils  will  let  nothing  get  in  the  way  of  prompt  attend- 
ance upon  them.    With  intelligent  preparation  on  the  part 

.  Roark's    Econ. — 4 


50  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  teacher  the  school  can  be  made,  for  the  first  quarter 
of  an  hour  each  day,  a  sort  of  psychic  storage  battery  in 
which  to  lay  up  enough  power  to  facilitate  greatly  the 
day's  work.  The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of 
these  exercises,  which  should  be  varied  frequently  and 
made  piquant  and  fresh. 

Program  of  Opening  Exercises  for  a  Monday  Morning 

A  song  by  the  school. 

Reading  of  the  Parable  of  the  Talents,  with  comments,  by  the 
teacher. 

Repetition  of  the  first  six  verses  of  Proverbs  13,  by  the  school, 
led  by  the  teacher. 

Two  minutes'  talk  by  the  teacher  upon  the  week's  motto  (writ- 
ten on  the  board)  :  "  It  pays  to  do  more  than  you  are  paid  to 
do." 

Music  on  the  violin,  by  an  invited  guest. 

A  report  of  the  chief  news  of  the  last  week,  made  by  an  eighth- 
grade  pupil  previously  appointed  for  that  duty. 

Announcements  and  special  directions  for  the  day's  work,  by 
the  teacher. 

An  analysis  of  this  type  will  show  several  valuable 
elements  of  economy. 

Devotional  Exercises. —  Where  state  law  or  local  op- 
position does  not  prevent,  the  Scripture  reading  should 
be  a  regular  feature  of  the  program,  because  of  its  cul- 
tural and  ethical  value,  to  say  nothing  of  the  need  of 
simple  religious  teaching,  for  the  lack  of  which  public 
schools  have  been  so  criticised. 

Mottoes. —  An  excellent  practice  of  the  old-time  school 
which  the  latter-day  school  should  not  permit  to  fall  into 
disuse  is  the  placing  of  mottoes  or  proverbs  before  the 
pupils.  There  is  much  testimony  to  the  value  of  this 
practice;  men  and  women  grown  declare  the  influence 
.  exerted  by  the  motto  in  the  copy  book  or  on  the  black- 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  51 

board,  which,  catching  the  idle  eye  of  childhood,  hag  sunk 
into  the  sub-consciousness,  and  has  there  touched  the 
springs  of  character.  The  teacher  will  do  well  to  have  a 
different  motto  written  on  the  board  in  some  fixed  place 
every  week,  calling  the  attention  of  the  whole  school  to  it 
with  a  few  pointed  comments  or  illustrations.^  Biograph- 
ical illustrations  are  especially  good,  incidents  showing 
the  influence  the  principle  of  the  motto  has  exerted  upon 
the  work  of  some  well-known  man  or  woman.  The 
personal  element  always  holds  the  interest  of  young 
people. 

Music. —  In  addition  to  its  high  cultural  worth,  a  piece 
of  music  rendered,  even  crudely,  by  some  one  not  a  mem- 
ber of  the  school  has  two  values ;  it  serves  to  break  the 
routine  of  the  school  and  to  awaken  interest  more  than  if 
given  by  the  teacher  or  a  pupil,  and  it  identifies  the  com- 
munity with  some  part  of  the  work  of  the  school.  This 
latter  service  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  When  some 
one  outside  the  school  is  asked  to  speak,  to  sing,  to  play, 
or  otherwise  to  contribute  something  to  the  special  exer- 
cises, not  only  the  friends  of  the  one  thus  contributing 
take  a  new  interest  in  the  school,  but  the  whole  com- 
munity awakens  to  a  sense  of  sharing  in  the  work  the 
teacher  is  trying  to  do.  The  teacher  will,  of  course, 
always  be  at  pains  to  make  the  public  feel  welcome  at  ail 
school  exercises,  especially  at  those  which  open  the  school 
each  day  and  at  those  which  close  the  week. 

Current  Events. —  By  nothing,  outside  of  the  regular 
class  work,  can  the  interests  of  the  pupils  be  more  surely 
or  profitably  quickened  and  broadened  than  by  the  discus- 
sion of  "  current  events."  Such  discussion  should  con- 
stitute a  part  of  the  usual  work  in  the  classes  in  geog- 

*  Refer  to  White's   "  School   Management,"   p,   ^93. 


52  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

raphy,  history,  and  civics ;  but  it  will  prove  profitable  to 
have  some  advanced  pupil,  a  good,  discriminating  reader 
of  the  news,  give  on  each  Monday  morning  an  outline  of 
the  chief  events  of  the  preceding  week,  which  shall  serve 
both  as  a  resume  of  what  the  school  may  already  know, 
and  as  a  guide  to  the  current  reading  of  the  coming  week. 
So  rapidly  has  this  feature  of  school  work  grown  in  favor 
that  there  are  a  dozen  or  more  news  publications  in  this 
country  now,  designed  exclusively  for  use  in  schools.  It 
is  well  to  have  the  pupils  feel  that  there  is  something  of 
value  they  can  do  for  the  school  as  an  organism  —  some- 
thing besides  "  saying  lessons,"  and  this  reporting  of  the 
news  they  can  do  well  and  with  profit. 

If  there  are  smy  variations  to  be  made  in  the  usual 
program,  or  special  announcements  of  any  kind  to  be 
made,  the  close  of  the  opening  exercises,  when  every- 
body's attention  is  alert,  is  a  good  time  to  make  them. 

At  the  end  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  spent  as  suggested 
in  the  last  few  paragraphs,  the  whole  school  is  refreshed 
and  brightened  for  the  daily  tasks,  and  the  work  goes 
much  more  smoothly  than  if  it  be  taken  up  without  any 
opening  exercises.  This  feature  of  school  work  needs 
most  careful  and  intelligent  planning. 

The  central  theme  of  the  program  shown  on  page  50  is 
"current  events,"  and  this  theme  may  be  used  every 
Monday.  Some  topic  taken  from  elementary  science  may 
be  the  central  theme  for  Tuesday,  one  from  literature 
for  Wednesday,  and  so  on  through  the  week. 

Daily  Closing  Exercises. —  While  it  is  not  expedient 
or  desirable  to  have  special  exercises  with  which  to  close 
the  school  every  day,  still  it  is  well  to  have  a  regular 
formal  closing  of  the  day's  work,  and  to  have  occasionally 
special  exercises,  as  simple  and  brief  as  possible. 


■  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  S3 

Before  the  pupils  are  dismissed  in  the  afternoon  they 
should  be  brought  to  "attention"  (sitting  squarely  in 
the  seat,  facing  the  teacher),  and  then  the  teacher  may 
give  a  word  or  two  of  comment  on  the  day's  work  just 
finished,  or  upon  the  conduct  of  the  school,  or  as  to  what 
he  wants  done  the  next  day ;  or  he  may  let  them  go  with 
a  simple  and  hearty  "  good-bye."  Sometimes  there  may 
be  a  song,  or  a  concert  recitation  of  a  "  memory  gem," 
or  a  brief  gymnastic  exercise,  or  a  bit  of  practice  with 
the  flag  salute.  There  should  be  variety  and  freshness, 
vim,  and  brevity,  so  all  may  go  home  feeling  that  school 
is  a  good  place. 

Observance  of  Special  Days. —  Every  state  now  makes 
provision  for  an  arbor  day,  which  is  observed  more  or 
less  closely  by  the  schools,  according  to  locality  and  the 
disposition  of  the  teacher. 

But  it  will  be  found  greatly  helpful  to  observe  other 
special  days  also.  "  Bird  day  "  is  growing  in  favor,  and 
it  IS  well  that  it  is.  Local  Audubon  clubs  will  gladly 
cooperate  in  the  exercises  on  such  a  day,  and  the  occa- 
sion can  be  made  of  high  value  in  inculcating  a  knowledge 
of  birds,  in  showing  their  protective  service,  and  in  culti- 
vating the  pupils'  humane  and  aesthetic  instincts.  The 
following  is  a  suggestive  program  easily  varied  to  suit 
different  schools: 

Program  of  a  Bird  Day 

Wall  display  of  colored  photographic  pictures  (with  names) 
of  the  birds  most  common  in  the  locality.^ 

Concert  singing  by  the  school  of  a  bird  song,  found  in  any 
good  school  song  book. 

Brief  statements  by  different  pupils  of  the  economic  value  of 

*  These  pictures  may  be  had,  at  very  slight  cost,  from  the  Nature  Study 
Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  Refer  also  to  Wright's  **  Citizen  Bird,"  and 
Blanchan's    **  Bird    Neighbors." 


54  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

birds  to  farms  and  orchards,  with  illustrations  gained  by  their 
own  observation. 

Reading  by  the  teacher  of  the  state  law  against  the  slaughter 
of  song  and  insectivorous  birds.  (Pointed  comments  should  ac- 
company the  reading.) 

Brief  descriptions,  by  pupils,  drawn  from  actual  observation, 
of  the  feeding,  nesting,  migration,  and  other  habits  and  charac- 
teristics of  the  birds  of  the  vicinity. 

Reading  or  fecitation  by  a  seventh-grade  pupil  of  a  selection 
from  Burroughs's  "  Birds  and  Bees." 

Reading  or  recitation  of  the  following  selection,  or  one  similar : 

The  Broken  Wing. 

In  front  of  my  pew  sits  a  maiden, 

A  little  brown  wing  in  her  hat. 
With  its  touches  of  tropical  azure, 

And  the  sheen  of  the  sun  upon  that!  * 

Through  the  bloom-colored  pane  shines  a  glory, 
By  which  the  vast  shadows  are  stirred, 

But  I  pine  for  the  spirit  and  splendor 
That  painted  the  wing  of  that  bird. 

The  organ  rolls  down  its  great  anthem, 

With  the  soul  of  a  song  it  is  blent; 
But  for  me,  I  am  sick  for  the  singing 

Of  one  little  song  that  is  spent. 

The  voice  of  the  preacher  is  gentle ; 

"  No  sparrow  shall  fall  to  the  ground ;" 
But  the  poor  broken. wing  on  the  bonnet. 

Is  mocking  the  merciful  sound. 

The  birthdays  of  authors,  scientists,  inventors,  and 
others  who  have  added  to  the  world's  comfort  and  happi- 
ness may  be  observed  and  celebrated  in  the  same  way. 
The  dates  of  such  days,  and  biographical  sketches  and 
suggestive  programs,  are  given  in  any  good  period- 
ical publication  intended  for  teachers  in  the  public  schools. 
Such  exercises  should  not  be  too  frequent,  and  the  longest 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  55 

program  need  never  occupy  more  than  an  hour,  and  sel- 
dom need  so  much  time  be  used.  It  should  not  be  neces- 
sary to  add  that  every  program  must  be  carefully  and 
thoughtfully  prepared  beforehand,  by  both  teacher  and 
pupils.     Let  nothing  drag. 

To  these  exercises  the  public  should  always  be  made 
welcome;  parents  especially  should  be  cordially  urged  to 
attend.  No  opportunity  should  be  let  pass  for  getting 
the  parents  into  the  schoolroom,  so  they  may  come  to 
understand  and  cooperate  with  the  work  of  the  teacher. 

If  any  teacher  reading  this  section  should  here  say  that 
he  has  no  time  for  such  things,  it  being  necessary  to  spend 
every  hour  in  the  "  regular  grind,''  let  it  be  said  in  reply 
that  if  these  special  exercises  be  well  and  judiciously  used, 
if  the  spirit  of  them  be  fully  entered  into,  the  regular 
grind  will  go  faster  and  the  "  grist "  will  be  better. 

Prizes;  Marks;  Reports 

False  Incentives. —  Prizes  of  the  sort  usually  given  for 
successful  work  in  school  are  false  incentives,  taking  the 
emphasis  off  the  thing  that  is  good  in  itself,  that  is  study 
for  the  sake  of  knowledge  and  power,  and  putting  it  on 
things  that  are  educationally  worthless.  But  this  is  not 
to  condemn  wholly  the  giving  of  prizes;  properly  man- 
aged they  may  be  made  to  stimulate  effort  to  a  point  where 
the  child  may  see  for  himself  the  value  of  work  and  the 
profit  of  its  results.  Prizes  should  always  be  so  given 
as  to  stir  some  deeper  and  intrinsic  interest  as  soon  as 
possible.  It  is  safe  always  not  to  give  medals,  or  any- 
thing else  valuable  in  itself,  except  books.  The  more  the 
attention  is  drawn  to  the  prize  itself  and  taken  off  that 
for  which  the  prize  stands  the  more  worthless  it  is  as  a 
good  incentive  to  effort.     An  apt  illustration  of  this  is 


56  '  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

found  in  the  Olyn^pic  games.  They  were  at  their  best 
when  the  prizes  were  simple  wreaths  of  oHve  or  oak,  and 
their  decadence  was  marked  by  the  introduction  of  costly 
gifts  for  the  victors. 

In  any  school  a  card,  a  bit  of  ribbon,  a  simple  badge 
with  appropriate  inscription,  or,  for  older  pupils,  a  whole- 
some book,  will  be  far  more  serviceable  than  gold  or 
silver  medals.  To  be  of  the  highest  value  prizes  should 
be  awarded  for  the  most  marked  and  rapid  improvement 
under  given  conditions,  rather  than  for  absolute  accom- 
plishment. In  this  way  the  stimulus  reaches  all,  and  the 
slowest  pupil  has  a  chance  of  being  touched  with  the  fire 
of  ambition. 

True  Incentives. —  It  is  worthy  of  many  repetitions 
that  the  true  incentives  to  successful  work  are  the  pupils' 
own  aroused  interests  in  the  things  about  them,  in  ma- 
terial things  and  in  the  facts  and  relations  of  their  imme- 
diate prac1:ical  life  and  of  the  larger  world.  These 
interests  can  best  and  most  surely  be  aroused  through 
the  strong,  informed,  and  enthusiastic  personality  of  the 
teacher. 

Marking. —  The  discussion  which,  some  years  ago, 
raged  over  the  matter  of  marking  pupils  has  decided 
nothing  unless  it  be  that  marking  of  some  sort  can  not 
well  be  dispensed  with.  The  marks  may  be  made  with 
"  plain  figures,"  in  old-fashioned  per  cents,  in  letters,  in 
symbols,  or  in  voluminous  statements  of  the  teacher  re- 
garding the  psychic  condition  of  the  pupil ;  but  the  stub- 
born fact  remains  that  marking  of  some  sort  must  be 
done.  The  teacher  can  not  otherwise  keep  track  of  the 
pupils'  growth  or  lack  of  it.  In  none  of  the  grades, 
however,  except  those  of  the  third  division  (seventh  and 
eighth   grades)    should   any   attempt  be   made  at  daily 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  57 

marking ;  and  not  in  these  is  it  necessary,  if  even  expedi- 
ent. Marking  may  be  done  most  frequently  in  arithmetic, 
technical  grammar  and  spelling ;  less  frequently  in  reading 
and  other  culture  studies. 

Country  schools  have  suffered  far  more  from  a  lack  of 
marking  than  from  an  excess  of  it;  and  where  schools 
have  been  harmed  by  marking  it  has  been  due  to  such 
lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  to  make  the  fact 
of  marking  obtrusively  evident  to  the  pupils,  and  to  the 
practice  of  giving  marks  almost  solely  upon  examination 
results. 

The  best  time  to  mark  a  pupil  upon  a  piece  of  work  is 
immediately  after  the  work  has  been  done.  But  unless 
the  teacher  has  acquired  enough  facility  in  estimating 
the  value  of  a  recitation,  and  enough  skill  in  handling  a 
class,  to  enable  him  to  mark  wo^k  as  soon  as  it  is  done, 
without  interrupting  the  flow  of  the  class  interest,  he 
had  better  make  his  memoranda  at  some  other  time,  as, 
for  example,  just  after  the  class  is  dismissed. 

In  addition  to  recording  the  results  of  ordinary  recita- 
tions, the  results  of  reviews  (which  should  be  frequent 
and  spirited)  should  also  be  carefully  noted.  Examina- 
tions should  be  estimated  as  only  one  third,  or  at  most 
one  half  of  the  total  for  a  term. 

There  should  be  close  marking  for  absences  and  tardy 
attendance.  Many  teachers  find  it  also  an  admirable  plan 
to  keep  careful  account  of  the  pupils'  deportment;  but 
under  no  circumstances  should  a  pupil  be  marked  off  in 
scholarship  on  account  of  poor  deportment;  the  two 
accounts  should  be  kept  carefully  separate. 

Making  Reports  to  Parents. —  A  monthly  report  of 
the  child's  progress  is  due  the  parent;  and  if  this  is  not 
reason  enough  for  sending  it,  a  sufficient  one  is  found  in 


58  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  fact  that  a  report,  showing  progress  or  retrogression, 
sent  home  every  month,  makes  the  parents  cognizant  of 
the  work  being  done  by  the  pupils,  and  acts,  in  every 
case,  as  a  spur  and  incentive  to  both  parents  and  pupils 
to  make  that  work  better.  It  serves  effectively  as  one 
means  of  correlating  the  influences  of  the  home  and  of 
the  school.  The  report  should  show  "  Attendance," 
"  Deportment,"  and  "  Scholarship,"  for  at  least  the  upper 
four  grades. 

School  Expositions 

The  old-time  school  "  exhibition,"  with  its  declama- 
tions, essays,  and  dialogues,  aided  much  in  its  day  in  the 
always  needed  correlation  of  school  and  community.  It 
can  still  be  made  of  great  service,  but  should  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  more  modern  and  effective  school 
"  exposition."  The  exhibition  was  not  usually  planned 
as  a  means  of  showing  the  results  of  work  done  as  a  part 
of  the  regular  school  exercises ;  it  was  intended  merely  to 
"  show  off "  the  pupils  and  entertain  the  local  public. 
The  "  exposition,"  on  the  other  hand,  has  for  its  purpose 
to  direct  critical  and  appreciative  attention  to  all  of  such 
regular  school  work  as  can  be  exhibited  objectively.  The 
exhibition  showed  off  the  pupils;  the  exposition  shows 
their  regular  work. 

Practice  in  oral  expression  should  constitute  a  very 
considerable  part  of  the  regular  school  work,  week  after 
week.  The  results  of  this  also  can  be  shown  in  a  modi- 
fied form  of  the  "  exhibition,"  which  may  be  made  an 
integral  and  important  part  of  the  exposition  plan. 

Preparation  of  Exposition  Material. —  One  very 
marked  advantage  of  the  exposition  is  that  the  prepara- 
tion for  it  is  best  made  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work,  and 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  59 

instead  of  distracting  attention  from  study,  as  preparation 
for  a  school  "  entertainment "  is  sure  to  do,  it  serves  to 
concentrate  attention  and  effort  upon  the  ordinary  duties 
of  the  school.  The  method  of  preparing  and  collecting 
exposition  material  is  simple: 

In  all  nature-study  exercises  there  are  collected  many 
specimens  in  course  of  regular  work,  pressed  flowers  and 
plants,  fruits,  seeds ;  clays,  soils,  minerals ;  insects  in  vari- 
ous stages  of  development ;  and  some  of  each  pupil's  best 
of  all  these  should  be  laid  aside  by  the  teacher  about 
every  two  weeks,  and  kept  for  exposition  purposes. 
There  will  also  be  pieces  of  simple  apparatus  made  by  the 
pupils  to  illustrate  elementary  physics  and  chemistry,  and 
these,  too,  should  be  kept  in  good  order  for  use  on  exposi- 
tion day. 

In  geography  and  history,  the  outlines,  topic  lists,  brief 
descriptive  essays,  flat  and  relief  maps,  and  illustrative 
drawings,  all  of  which  are  prpduced  as  a  part  of  the 
regular  school  work,  make  most  excellent  exposition 
material. 

In  arithmetic  and  other  mathematics,  modeb solutions, 
mathematical  drawings,  and  mathematical  models  made 
by  the  pupils  from  wood,  clay,  or  cardboard,  furnish  val- 
uable exhibits. 

Written  work  in  all  subjects,  outlines,  diagrams  in 
grammar,  illustrated  essays,  and  drawings  and  hand 
work  of  any  and  all  kinds,  done  as  a  part  of  school  duty, 
should  furnish  many  typical  specimens  to  be  put  on 
display. 

Correct  methods  of  teaching  involve  the  preparation  of 
all  the  material  suggested  above,  and  it  remains  only  to 
collect  the  best  specimens  of  each  pupil's  work  at  stated 
intervals  and  to  file  it  away.     The  collection  of  material 


6o  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

should  begin  in  the  second  week  of  school,  and  the  pupils 
should  understand  from  the  beginning  what  the  material 
is  being  collected  for.  If  the  exposition  idea  is  a  new 
one  in  the  community,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to 
show  some  material  secured  in  his  last  school,  or  from 
some  fellow  worker,  so  that  the  pupils  may  get  the  idea 
and  be  stimulated  by  it  from  the  first. 

Arousing  Emulation  and  Ambition. — As  the  material 
is  collected  from  time  to  time  the  best  specimens  should 
be  shown  to  the  whole  school,  with  comments  by  the 
teacher.  Teachers  from  different  districts  can  also  ex- 
change good  specimens  among  themselves,  at  association 
meetings,  and  use  the  specimens  thus  secured  to  show 
their  pupils  "  what  other  people  are  doing." 

The  county  superintendent  should  secure,  the  best  ma- 
terial from  each  school  in  his  county,  and  have  it  properly 
displayed  at  the  county  institute  or  some  other  gath- 
ering of  teachers  and  patrons.  The  best  from  each  county 
should  be  shown  at  the  state  educational  meeting,  and  the 
best  from  the  rural  schools  of  each  state  should  find  its 
way  to  the  national  meeting,  and  help  to  constitute  a  dis- 
tinctively "  Rural  School  Exhibit."  If  pupils  and  teach- 
ers can  look  forw^ard  to  such  a  possibility  as  the  outcome 
of  their  daily  work,  that  work  will  surely  be  better  done, 
and  opportunities  will  be  sought  for  enlarging  its  scope. 
The  value  of  such  exhibits  is  set  forth  in  a  series  of 
articles  in  the  Educational  Review,  Vol.  5. 

Exposition  Forms. —  Although  the  teacher  who  is 
really  in  earnest  about  making  a  success  of  his  exposition 
will  do  so  with  any  kind  of  raw  material,  yet  it  is  very  de- 
sirable to  have  map  blanks,  paper,  etc.,  uniform,  not  only 
throughout  the  individual  school,  but  all  over  the  county. 
The  less  attention  is  diverted  from  the  work  by  the  varia- 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  6l 

tions  of  the  paper  on  which  it  is  done,  the  better  can  a 
just  comparison  between  different  pupils  and  different 
schools  be  made.  Paper  used  for  written  work  should 
have  printed  headings,  and  these,  when  filled  out,  should 
show  plainly  the  facts  that  any  careful  student  of  the 
work  of  schools  wants  to  know.  Below  is  given  a  sug- 
gestive heading  for  papers  on  which  written  work  is  to 
be  done.     The  size  of  the  sheet  should  be  foolscap. 

CARROLL   SCHOOL 

District  No.  8.  Clinton  Co.,  Penn. 

Teacher 

o 

Grade Branch Subject Pupil Age.... 

Date 

Every  piece  of  work  should,  without  exception,  show 
at  least  the  grade  and  age  of  the  pupil. ^ 

Time  and  Place  of  Exposition. —  The  exposition 
should  mark  the  close  of  school,  and  should  take  place 
at  the  schoolhouse.  Suggestions  for  a  detailed  program 
are  given  under  the  topic  ''  Closing  the  School,"  on  p.  79. 

The  foregoing  topics,  belonging  to  a  discussion  of  the 
general  management  of  the  school,  leave  still  some  other 
suggestions  to  be  made  in  detail.  These  will  fall  under 
the  heads  "  Management  in  the  Room  "  and  "  Manage- 
ment on  the  Playground." 

Management  in  the  Room 

The  chief  problem,  many  teachers  think  the  only  prob- 
lem, which  confronts  the  teacher  in  the  schoolroom  is 
that  of  maintaining  good  order.  Good  order  in  the  room 
is  that  condition  of  things  under  which  each  pupil  does 
good  work  without  interfering  with  anybody  else.     This 

^See    Holbrookes    "New    Method!" 


62  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

condition  is  modified  by  either  physical  or  mental  influ- 
ences, or  both. 

Physical  Causes  of  Disorder. —  Disorder  is  often  oc- 
casioned by  untoward  physical  conditions,  over  some  of 
which  the  pupils  can  have  no  control,  and  the  teacher, 
unfortunately,  often  but  little.  The  gravest  of  these  are 
crowded  or  otherwise  uncomfortable  seats,  poor  ventila- 
tion, too  high  or  too  low  temperature,  the  presence  of  the 
stove  in  the  middle  of  the  room  (idle  pupils  love  to  hide 
behind  a  stove),  unshaded  windows,  slamming  shutters 
and  rattling  sashes,  creaking  doors,  and  the  presence  of 
the  water  bucket  in  the  room.  The  mere  enumeration 
indicates  the  remedies. 

Pupils  Must  Be  Comfortable. —  The  whole  question 
of  order  or  disorder  arising  from  physical  conditions  can 
be  easily  solved  by  the  formula:  Pupils  must  he  made 
comfortable.  The  teacher  who  knows  the  value  of  little 
comforts  and  the  cumulative  force  of  small  annoyances 
will  see  to  it  that  an  even  temperature  is  maintained,  that 
seats  and  desks  are  at  the  right  height,  that  floors  are 
swept  and  furniture  dusted  daily,  that  sunny  windows  are 
screened,  that  rusty  hinges  are  oiled,  in  short,  that  every- 
thing which  annoys  the  eye  or  ear  or  muscle,  or  fur- 
nishes a  temptation  to  idleness  or  unnecessary  move- 
ment, is  removed  or  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Disorder  also  arises  from  psychic  causes  and  is  most 
frequently  due  to  the  personality  and  manner  of  the 
teacher,  to  his  harsh  and  uncultured  voice,  to  his  lack  of 
self-control,  to  his  deficient  scholarship,  to  the  lack  of  a 
good  daily  program,  and,  above  all,  to  the  teacher's  failure 
so  to  vary  the  routine  of  the  school  as  to  awaken  and  sus- 
tain a  healthy  interest. 

The  Teacher's   Personality.-— In   any   discussion  of 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  63 

ways  and  means  in  education  one  truth  persistently 
thrusts  itself  upon  us,  and  that  is  that  successful  manage- 
ment and  fruitful  method  depend,  at  last,  more  upon  the 
teacher's  personality  than  upon  all  other  things  put 
together.  This  personality  impresses  itself  upon  the 
pupils  through  the  teacher's  eye  and  bearing,  tone  and 
gesture,  even  through  his  garb;  and  back  of  all  is  that 
which  is  called  "  personal  magnetism,"  that  intangible, 
indefinable  something  whose  existence  is  very  real  and 
makes  itself  very  consciously  felt. 

The  controlling  and  inspiring  force  of  a  clear,  pene- 
trating eye,  a  calm,  modulated  voice,  a  self-controlled 
manner,  an  air  of  reserve  force,  can  not  be  measured,  but 
these  count  for  more  than  all  the  birch  rods  or  loud 
ordering  about.  It  is  this  fact  more  than  any  other  that 
makes  whatever  value  there  is  in  the  familiar  assertion 
that  the  teacher  is  born,  and  not  made  by  normal  schools 
or  pedagogical  lectures. 

The  Teacher's  Scholarship. —  Sound  scholarship 
{sound  scholarship,  not  necessarily  extensive  scholarship) 
very  largely  increases  the  teacher's  personal  force.  Pu- 
pils who  themselves  care  but  little  for  learning  respect  it 
in  the  teacher,  when  it  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  sound  and 
accurate.  Scholarship  inspires  confidence.  The  teacher 
must  know  thoroughly  what  he  assumes  to  know,  or  the 
plipils  will  soon  come  to  scorn  him  as  a  pretender;  then 
good  government  is  at  an  end. 

To  scholarship  in  the  strict  sense  should  be  added  as 
much  general  information  as  the  teacher  can  acquire.  He 
must  meet  each  class  full  of  his  subject  and  competent  to 
give  many  illustrations  and  explanations  not  found  in  the 
text-books.  The  test  of  a  teacher's  minimum  sufficiency 
of  knowledge  is  his  ability  to  dispense  with  a  hook  while 


64  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

conducting  a  recitation;  not  otherwise  can  he  inspire, 
refresh,  interest,  and  guide  his  pupils.^ 

The  Daily  Program. —  The  best  preventive  against  dis- 
order is  a  strict  adherence  to  the  principle  of  "  definite 
work  for  each  one  to  do  at  a  definite  time,  and  each  one 
doing  it  at  that  time."  This  means,  of  course,  a  carefully 
planned  and  closely  followed  daily  program,  which  pro- 
vides both  for  times  of  recitation  and  for  times  and  char- 
acter of  other  work.  A  good  program  calls  not  only  for 
study,  but  for  the  study  of  certain  things  at  certain 
times. 

Fatigue. —  The  first  principle  that  should  govern  the 
making  of  a  daily  program  is : 

The  school  day  should  he  so  divided  between  study ^ 
recitation,  and  play  that  fatigue  shall  he  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum, and  efficiency  he  hrought  to  its  highest  level. 

The  question  of  fatigue,  which  is  of  such  prime  impor- 
tance in  arranging  periods  of  study  and  recitation,  alter- 
nated with  periods  of  recitation  and  play,  is  only  begin- 
ning to  receive  proper  notice  in  this  country.  Just  how 
long  interested  attention  may  be  given  by  children  at  dif- 
ferent ages,  how  much  application  can  be  required  with- 
out injury,  how  long  the  periods  of  rest  and  play  should 
be  —  these  are  matters  still  awaiting  accurate  determina- 
tion through  careful  inductive  investigation.  The  whole 
question  is  of  far  less  moment  in  rural  schools  than  in  city 
schools.  In  the  country,  children  are  under  less  restraint, 
have  almost  unlimited  facilities  for  outdoor  exercise,  and 
therefore  sufifer  less  from  any  form  of  school  fatigue  than 
is  the  case  in  cities.  A  fuller  discussion  of  the  subject, 
therefore,  than  is  needed  here  will  be  found  under  the  head 
of  the  "  Administration  of  the  Individual  City  School." 

*  For  further  discussion  of  lesson  management  see  Roark's  "  Method  in 
Education,"   p.    67,   Rule   II. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  65 

Each  teacher  must  make  an  intelligent  study  of  his  own 
school  as  a  whole,  and  of  individual  pupils,  and  base  his 
daily  program  upon  the  results  of  this  study. 

In  any  event,  a  program  should  be  a  living  one,  and  not 
cast-iron.  Only  three  rules  can  be  laid  down  with  any 
positiveness.  The  first  is,  the  studies  and  exercises  which 
make  the  severest  tax  upon  the  powers  of  concentrated 
attention  and  abstract  thinking  should  come  in  the  earlier 
morning.  Because  the  younger  pupils  are  able  to  do  but 
little  except  immediately  under  the  teacher's  direction,  and 
are  sure  to  be  aimlessly  restless^  if  not  given  interesting 
employment  as  soon  as  school  assembles,  they  should  be 
heard  in  recitation  first,  after  the  opening  exercises,  and 
should  then  be  assigned  to  seat  work  or  outdoor  activities. 
During  the  time  occupied  in  recitation  by  these  elementary 
classes  the  most  advanced  pupils  should  be  reviewing  the 
difficult  work  prepared  the  night  before,  and  should  then 
be  called  to  recite.  The  time  between  the  opening  of 
school  and  the  first  general  recess  should  be  mainly  occu- 
pied by  the  recitations  of  the  advanced  grades  in  arithme- 
tic, technical  grammar,  and  history.  The-  lighter  work 
and  the  culture  subjects  should  come  mainly  in  the  after- 
noon. 

A  second  law  of  the  program  may  be  stated  mathe- 
matically —  weariness  is  inversely  as  the  square,  or  even 
the  cube,  of  interest.  German  writers  have  made^a  very 
clear  distinction  between  fatigue,  which  is  a  pathological 
condition,  mainly  physical,  and  weariness,  which  is  psy- 
chological and  is  due  mainly  to  lack  of  interest. 

A  third  rule  is,  there  should  be  frequent  rest  periods. 

In  the  rural  schools,  where  the  school  day  is  a  long  one, 
there  should  be  two  long  recesses,  fifteen  to  twenty  min- 
utes each,  one  to  break  the  morning  session,  the  other  the 

Roark's  Econ. — 5 


66  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

afternoon,  and  the  noon  intermission  should  be  at  least 
an  hour  and  a  quarter,  preferably  an  hour  and  a  half,  in 
length. 

The  pupils  of  the  first  division,  the  first  three  grades, 
should  have  an  outdoor  recess  also  between  the  first  gen- 
eral recess  and  noon,  and  would  profit  by  a  short  one 
between  the  time  of  opening  and  the  first  general  recess. 
If  local  conditions  admit  of  it,  which  frequently  they 
do  not,  this  division  should  be  dismissed  for  the  day  at 
the  mid-afternoon  recess,  if  not  earlier. 

Suggestive  Daily  Program.- —  In  the  following  partial 
program  the  effort  is  made  to  put  into  practical  working 
form  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 
The  first  and  last  sessions  of  the  day  are  given  in  detail. 
The  second  and  third  sessions  should  follow  the  same 
general  plan,  the  most  difficult  work  of  the  afternoon 
coming  first. 

Study  at  School. —  There  are  several  excellent  reasons 
why  most  of  the  studying  should  be  done  at  school.  In 
the  first  place,  if  the  lessons  are  prepared  at  home  the 
pupils  will  be  idle  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  time  at  school, 
as  no  grade  will  spend  more  than  one  third  of  the  school 
day  in  recitation.  Again,  it  is  quite  as  much  the  business 
of  the  teacher  to  show  his  pupils  how  to  study  as  it  is  to 
conduct  recitations,  and  this  requires  the  preparation  of 
lessons  at  school.  Finally,  if  pupils  work  as  they  should 
while  at  school  it  is  hygienically  wrong  to  require  work  of 
them  at  home.  An  excellent  rule  is,  Require  no  home 
study  of  pupils  below  the  sixth  grade. 

Work  of  All  Grades  Indicated  in  the  Program. —  The 
program  given  opposite  indicates  work  for  each  grade,  but 
as  a  matter  of  fact  the  cases  are  very  rare  in  which  any 
rural  school  will  have  all  grades  going  at  once.     When 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


67 


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68  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

it  so  happens  that  classes  in  all  or  a  large  number  of  the 
eight  grades  must  be  organized,  the  teacher  is  compelled 
to  use  several  expedients  in  order  to  save  time  and  do 
effective  work  with  each  class. 

Group  Work. —  In  the  first  place  many  exercises  of 
the  school  may  be  participated  in  at  the  same  time  by  the 
grades  of  a  group  or  division,  and  some  exercises  by  the 
school  as  a  whole. 

Drawing,  penmanship,  manual  training  (seat  work  or 
sloyd),  and  calisthenics  may  occupy  the  whole  school,  or 
a  large  part  of  it,  at  the  same  time. 

The  nature-study  exercises  may  better  be  by  divisions 
than  by  grades  ;  so  may  also  the  vocal  music,  the  language 
Work,  the  reading  or  literature  of  the  third  division  at 
least,  and  the  forensic  drills. 

Some  excellent  authorities  upon  school  management 
have  even  advocated  conducting  all  the  work  of  the  rural 
school  in  a  three-group,  or,  at  most,  a  four-group  ar- 
rangement. Programs  according  to  this  plan  are  given 
in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  and  in  White's 
"  School  Management."  No  plan  of  grouping  is  really 
economical,  however,  if  it  necessitates  throwing  together 
into  one  class  two  or  more  grades  in  subjects  in  which 
there  is  a  necessary  sequence  of  topics,  as  in  arithmetic 
and  history,  for  example. 

Alternation. —  Under  stress  of  numbers  and  lack  of 
time  a  teacher  is  justified  in  alternating  some  of  the  classes 
in  the  third  division,  for  example,  holding  recitations  in 
arithmetic  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  and  in 
technical  grammar,  or  composition,  on  Tuesdays  and 
Thursdays.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  alternation  be 
by  years,  so  that  all  the  pupils  who  first  enter  school  in  the 
odd  years  shall,  beginning  with  the  third  grade,  take  the 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  69 

work  from  there  on  by  alternate  years.  Under  this  ar- 
rangement pupils  who  entered  school  in  1901  would  take 
the  work  of  the  third  grade  after  that  of  the  fourth,  the 
fifth  after  the  sixth,  the  seventh  after  the  eighth,  and  so 
would  finish  the  course  from  the  seventh  grade.  This 
plan  is  given  in  detail  in  the  April,  1901,  issue  of  The 
County  Superintendent's  Monthly   (Fremont,  Neb.). 

The  objections  that  obtain  against  this  plan  are,  how- 
ever, precisely  the  same  as  those  against  conducting  all 
classes  under  the  three-group  arrangement ;  and  in  addi- 
tion to  these  objections  is  the  fact  that  to  alternate 
by  years  would  require  a  more  careful  keeping  of  the 
school  register  than  the  average  teacher  can  be  induced 
to  do. 

The  Lancaster  Plan. —  The  Bell-Lancaster,^  or  Moni- 
torial, plan,  although  it  has  never  fulfilled  the  promises 
made  for  it  at  the  time  of  its  introduction  into  practical 
school  management,  is  altogether  the  best  arrangement 
for  an  economical  administration  of  the  daily  program 
in  a  crowded  rural  school  where  but  one  salaried  teacher 
can  be  employed.  This  plan  provides  for  putting  the 
best  pupils  of  the  advanced  grades  in  charge  of  some  of 
the  work  of  the  lowest  division,  and  where  this  is  done 
under  the  careful  supervision  of  the  teacher  the  results 
are  excellent.  An  older  student  is  often  much  nearer, 
psychologically,  to  the  younger  pupils  than  the  teacher 
is,  and  can  therefore  appreciate  and  relieve  the  younger 
pupils'  difficulties.  There  is  less  of  formalism  and  con- 
straint between  the  older  and  younger  pupils  than  between 
the  children  and  the  teacher,  and  the  little  people  can, 
therefore,  often  profit  more  by  the  instruction  of  older 
pupils  than  by  the   teacher's.     The   pupils   who  render 

^Report  of  the  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  '94-5,   1:  403;  2:   11 53. 


70  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

assistance  under  this  arrangement  are  greatly  benefited, 
because  to  teach  a  subject  in  even  an  elementary  way 
requires  a  far  better  assimilation  of  it  than  is  needed  in 
order  to  recite  successfully.  Then,  too,  the  recognition 
of  scholarship  and  trustworthiness  which  selection  as  an 
assistant  gives  is  justly  regarded  by  the  pupil  as  an  honor, 
and  the  effect  upon  his  self-respect  and  character  is  always 
good.  It  has  often  happened  that  bright  boys  and  girls 
whose  time  was  not  fully  occupied  with  their  own  work 
have  been  saved  from  becoming  disturbers  of  good  order 
by  being  selected  as  helpers  and  thus  made  responsible  in 
a  sort  of  official  way  for  the  right  conduct  of  the  school. 

The  teacher  should  be  very  careful  in  his^  selection  of 
helpers,  and  should  exercise  a  close  oversight  of  their 
work.  He  should  meet  them  frequently,  after  or  before 
school  hours,  and  go  over  the  lessons  with  them,  giving 
them  kindly  counsel  and  direction,  and  in  doing  so  will 
discover  that  he  is  himself  benefited  professionally  by  the 
effort  to  teach  others  how  to  teach. 

Extra  Branches. —  Another  question  affecting  the 
proper  adjustment  of  the  daily  program  is  that  of  extra 
branches,  which  are  sometimes  called  for  by  older  pupils. 
Shall  the  teacher  give  instruction  in  any  subjects  not  called 
for  by  the  common  school  law?  The  answer  should  be 
yes,  with  one  proviso,  and  that  is  the  teaching  of  extra 
branches  shall  never  encroach  upon  the  time  needed  for 
the  required  subjects.  If  there  are  a  few  pupils  suffi- 
ciently advanced  to  undertake  the  study  of  two  or  three 
branches  outside  the  common-school  list  the  teacher 
should  do  all  he  can  to  encourage  them  in  doing  higher 
work.  He  himself  will  reap  great  benefit  from  such 
work;  but  the  greater  reward  will  be  the  satisfaction  of 
having  set  young  feet  in  the  way  of  higher  learning. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  71 

Individual  Work. —  Some  years  ago  there  was  discus- 
sion of  what  was  known  as  the  "  Pueblo  plan  "  of  indi- 
vidual work/  as  opposed  to  class  work.  All  that  is  of 
any  value  in  the  "  plan  "  can  be  secured  for  the  rural 
school  by  the  teacher's  using  an  hour  not  oftener  than 
once  a  week  in  which,  the  regular  recitations  being  sus- 
pended, to  go  about  the  room  from  pupil  to  pupil  in  order 
to  give  individual  help,  and  to  show  pupils  how  to  study.  ' 
The  day  on  which  this  individual  help  is  given  should  be 
movable,  so  the  pupils  may  not  come  to  look  for  this  fea- 
ture at  a  certain  time.  When  time  presses  unusually,  this 
individual  help  may  be  given  outside  of  school  hours. 

Calling  and  Dismissing  by  Signals. —  Orderly  pre- 
cision of  movement  about  the  room  and  between  the  room 
and  playground  is  not  a  matter  of  necessity  in  the  country 
school  as  in  the  city  school,  but  its  value  is  so  great  that 
the  rural  school  should  take  full  advantage  of  it.  To 
march  to  and  from  class  and  to  and  from  play  at  definite 
signals  is  a  splendid  drill  in  orderly,  expeditious  move- 
ment, and  aids  greatly  in  forming  and  fixing  the  habit 
of  maintaining  good  order  at  all  times.  The  pupils  soon 
come  to  like  the  marching  and  thus  their  interest  in  the 
school  is  increased.  And  in  addition  to  these  advantages 
it  saves  time. 

All  signals  within  the  room  should  be  given  quietly. 
The  call  to  recitation  and  dismission  therefrom 
may  be  made  by  the  low  counting  of  "  one  —  two  — 
three,''  or  by  simple  movements  of  the  head  or 
hand.  The  first  signal  means  *'  position  in  seat,"  with 
material  in  hand  and  feet  in  the  aisle;  the  second 
means  "  rise  and  pass,"  and  the  third  "  sit."  When  dis- 
missing the  school  for  recess  or  to  go  home,  "  position  in 

*  Educj^tional  Review,  7 :   1 54 ;   8 :  84. 


72 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


the  seat "  means  to  come  to  attention,  each  one  sitting 
squarely  in  the  seat  and  looking  at  the  teacher.  Then  the 
teacher  gives  directions  and  advice  about  the  play  and 
conduct  on  the  playgrounds,  or  sums  up  the  day's  work 
in  a  few  words  of  commendation  or  of  regret  for  a  day 
not  quite  up  to  the  standard. 

Management  on  the  Playground 

The  "  Play  Line." —  It  is  well  to  have  an  imaginary 
line  about  fifteen  feet  from  the  door,  and  require  all 
pupils  to  walk  quietly  between  that  line  and  the  door, 
whether  coming  in  or  going  out.  This  simple  little 
requirement  prevents  crowding  and  fussing  about  the 
door,  and  strengthens  the  habit  of  order  in  the  house. 

The  Teacher  on  the  Playground. —  As  a  rule  the 
teacher  should  be  on  the  playground  whenever  the  pupils 
are:  first,  so  that  he  himself  may  get  needed  exercise  in 
the  open  air ;  second,  that  he  may  discharge  duties  no  less 
binding  than  those  which  claim  his  attention  within  doors. 
He  should  direct  the  pupils'  activities  and  look  after  the 
order  as  carefully  as  in  the  schoolroom. 

The  matters  that  need  most  careful  watching  at  "  play- 
time "  are  (i)  quarrels,  (2)  dangerous  play,  (3)  tres- 
passing. 

Since  the  pupils,  when  on  the  playground,  are  somewhat 
less  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  teacher  than  when 
within  the  room,  order  must  be  provided  for  there  even 
more  than  in  the  house,  by  a  careful  and  patient  working 
out  of  the  truth  that  real  government  after  all  can  come 
only  from  within.  Control,  to  be  effective  in  the  long 
run,  must  be  self-control. 

Quarrelling. —  Nothing  will  effectively  prevent  quar- 
rels and  even  fights  upon  the  playground,  except  constant 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  73 

alertness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  who  must  be  able 
to  scent  a  coming  quarrel  almost  before  it  has  begun  to 
brew,  and  a  long  and  patient  inculcation  of  the  old,  sound 
truth  that  it  is  usually  more  cowardly  to  fight  than  to 
refuse  to  do  so.  Again  and  again  must  it  be  remembered 
that  the  only  real  control  is  self-control,  that  "  He  that  is 
slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty,  and  he  that  ruleth 
his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  city/'  If  the  "fight" 
should  prove  to  be  more  than  an  angry  scuffle,  the  bellig- 
erents may  be  sent  promptly  home,  may  be  subjected  to 
corporal  punishment,  or  even,  in  extreme  cases  and  when 
the  boys  are  nearly  grown,  turned  over  to  the  local  peace 
officers.  It  will,  however,  usually  prove  quite  sufficient 
to  separate  the  truculent  pair,  make  them  appear  ridicu- 
lous to  the  others,  and,  later,  give  each  an  earnest, 
straightforward  talk.  <i 

Dangerous  Play. —  When  a  number  of  healthy,  active 
children  play  together  they  will  surely  hit  upon  some  un- 
safe sports.  Here  again  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
but  general  rules  for  the  solution  of  the  teacher's  prob- 
lems. A  safe  rule  is,  "  Allow  no  sports  that  call  for 
mere  strength  or  weight  alone ;  "  and  conversely,  "  En- 
courage games  .that  involve  skill  as  well  as  strength." 
Games  requiring  only  strength  are  unsafe,  and  unfair  to 
the  weaker,  as  well  as  tending  to  cultivate  an  admiration 
for  mere  brute  muscle.  Games  of  skill  may  be  success- 
fully played  by  the  weaker  pupils,  and  they  cultivate 
quickness  of  mind. 

The  teacher  should  not  only  know  all  the  local  games 
and  sports,  but  be  able  to  suggest  good  new  ones  and  to 
show  the  pupils  how  to  play  them.  It  is  as  much  the 
teacher's  business  to  know  the  games  played  on  a  country 
school  playground  as  to  know  the  multiplication  table. 


74 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Trespassing. —  School  children's  trespassing  upon 
gardens  or  orchards  furnishes  the  teacher  occasion  for 
especially  reenforcing  his  teaching  of  civic  duty.  Here, 
again,  the  true  control  must  come  from  within  the  pupil, 
and  springs,  in  this  case,  from  a  cordial  acceptance  of 
the  principle  that  our  privileges  end  where  the  rights  of 
others  begin ;  that  no  one  has  excuse  for  interfering  with 
the  personal  or  property  rights  of  another.  No  other 
principle  of  civic  conduct  needs  so  careful  inculcation  as 
this  one.  Boys  must  be  made  to  understand  and  feel 
that  it  is  not  "  fun,"  but  simple  stealing,  to  raid  orchards, 
or  gardens,  or  hen's  nests,  even  though  but  little  is  taken 
and  little  damage  done.  They  must  be  taught  that  it  is 
not  "  sport, "  but  merely  vulgar  hoodlumism  and  selfish 
meanness  to  throw  stones  or  snowballs  at  people  passing 
along  the  highway.  They  must  be  brought  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  essential  lack  of  patriotism,  of  real  loyalty  to 
the  school  and  to  the  principles  of  American  government, 
in  all  such  misdeeds. 

Coeducation  on  the  Playground. —  In  the  rural  schools 
coeducation  of  boys  and  girls  is  an  established,  whole- 
some fact.  The  conscious,  deliberate  separation  of  the 
sexes  in  any  grade  of  school  is  unhealthful  and  therefore 
unwise,  and  it  is  well  that  conditions  prevent  the  attempt 
in  the  elementary  schools.  This  coeducation  should  ex- 
tend to  the  playground,  where  the  most  valuable  am.eni- 
ties  of  social  life  may  be  taught  and  illustrated  through 
the  normal  intermingling  of  boys  and  girls.  In  the  first 
place,  the  school  yard,  be  it  large  or  small  —  or  if  there 
is  no  inclosed  yard,  then  whatever  area  is  allotted  for 
play  —  should  be  marked  off  into  three  sections,  one  of 
which,  all  should  clearly  understand,  is  for  the  use  of 
girls  exclusively,  the  opposite  one  for  boys  exclusively, 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  75 

and  the  middle  one  for  both.  The  matter  of  playing  to- 
gether will  then  regulate  itself.  If  either  boys  or  girls 
desire  to  play  to  themselves,  they  do  so  within  their  own 
section ;  if  they  desire  to  play  together  they  do  so  within 
the  section  common  to  both.  This  is  the  only  regulation 
needed,  unless  there  be  special  local  reasons  for  additional 
rules.  The  teacher,  being  present  on  the  playground 
throughout  each  intermission,  should  sympathetically  so 
direct  the  intermingling  of  boys  and  girls  as  to  train  them 
in  the  little  courtesies  due  from  each  sex  to  the  other,  and 
thereby  secure  to  them  one  of  the  important  values  of 
coeducation. 

The  polite  conventions  should  also  be  observed,  not 
only  between  boys  and  girls,  but  between  members  of  the 
same  sex  also,'  during  the  eating  of  lunch  at  the  noon 
hour.  Attempts  to  carry  out  this  suggestion  will  be  be- 
set by  many  difficulties,  chief  of  which  will  be  the  anx- 
iety of  every  child  to  dispose  of  lunch  as  soon  as  possible 
in  order  to  get  to  playing.  But  if  the  teacher  can  even 
occasionally  get  all  the  pupils  to  sit  down  quietly,  at  the 
same  time,  in  family  or  neighborhood  groups,  and  eat 
their  lunch  hygienically  and  humanly,  with  observance 
of  table  courtesies,  it  will  be  very  helpfully  educative. 

The  Teacher  at  Play. —  The  question  as  to  how  much, 
,  if  at  all,  the  teacher  should  take  part  in  the  games  of  the 
children  upon  the  playground  must  be  answered  in  each 
case  according  to  local  conditions.  The  teacher  should 
at  all  times  be  ready  to  teach  a  new  game,  if  interest  in 
the  old  games  flags,  and  to  introduce  acceptable  variations 
into  those  that  are  familiar;  and  to  do  so  necessitates 
some  participation  in  the  children's  play.  At  other  times 
it  is  safest,  as  a  rule,  for  the  teacher  to  watch,  with  sym- 
pathetic appreciation,  the  sports  of  the  playground,  but 


76  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

rarely  to  take  part  in  them.  It  is  too  difficult  equitably  to 
participate  as  a  player,  and  at  the  same  time  to  exercise 
over  all  the  authoritative  supervision  of  the  teacher. 

Two  particular  suggestions  have  been  found  of  value 
in  the  case  of  the  man  teacher:  (i)he  should  not  take 
part  in  games  of  strength  and  skill,- with  the  larger  boys, 
unless  he  is  sure  of  being  victor  at  least  three  times  out 
of  five;  (2)  he  should  not  act  as  umpire  in  any  hotly  con- 
tested game,  unless  at  the  urgent  and  unanimous  request 
of  all  the  players. 

(e)   Closing  the  School 

Throughout  the  whole  term  of  school  the  teacher  must 
keep  steadily  in  view  not  only  the  present  good  of  the 
pupils,  but  their  future  growth  also;  not  only  his  duties 
to  the  schools  but  his  wider  duty  to  bring  the  whole  com- 
munity to  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  work  and  worth 
of  the  public  school. 

The  closing  weeks  and  days  of  school  should,  there- 
fore, be  made  to  show  richer  and  more  convincing  results 
than  any  others ;  the  work  should  grow  increasingly  dif- 
ficult and  yet  be  more  successfully  and  promptly  done 
than  earlier  in  the  year.  There  should  be  none  of  the 
flabby  "  letting  down  "  of  effort  which  is  too  often  seen 
in  schools  near  the  close  of  the  term,  while  teachers  and 
pupils  both  count  the  days  till  "  school  is  out."  The 
last  weeks  afford  the  best  opportunity  for  training  the 
pupils  in  persistent  work,  and  the  requirements  should 
not  grow  slack,  although  the  work  may  be  given  more 
variety. 

The  especial  aims  of  the  closing  week  should  be  the 
intensifying  and  fixing  of  past  results,  the  persistent 
stimulation  of  interest  in  the  pupils  and  the  community, 
and  the  preparation  for  a  culmination  of  effort  at  the 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  yy 

close  of  school.  The  children  will,  of  course,  carry  home 
news  of  all.  that  is  going  forward  in  the  schqol,  and  in 
direct  proportion  as  they  are  interested  the  parents  will 
be.  Formal  announcement  of  the  closing  exercises 
should  be  made  to  the  school  several  days  before  they 
occur;  and  the  local  paper,  if  there  be  one,  should  be 
asked  to  repeat  and  strengthen  the  invitation  to  the  pub- 
lic to  attend  these  exercises.  The  teacher  will  wisely 
seize  every  good  opportunity  to  extend  a  personal  invita- 
tion to  his  patrons,  and  even  the  pulpit  may  serve  as  a 
medium  of  directing  attention  to  the  work  of  the  last 
days  of  the  school ;  any  minister  would  be  glad  to  cooper- 
ate in  a  work  so  similar  in  purpose  to  his  own. 

The  Exposition. —  On  p.  58  the  suggestion  was  made 
that  the  exposition,  which  is  a  display  of  the  genuine  re- 
sults of  pupils'  regular  work  throughout  the  term,  may 
be  both  the  modern  exposition  and,  in  part,  the  old  "  ex- 
hibition "  also.  The  exposition  proper,  for  which  writ- 
ten work,  maps,  drawings,  nature-study  collections,  etc., 
have  been  prepared,  should  be  held  in  the  forenoon  of  the 
last  day,  and  all  the  exhibits  should  be  got  in  pl^ce  the  day 
preceding.  The  heavier  material  should  be  placed  neat- 
ly on  desks  and  tables,  so  that  each  pupil's  work  will 
be  by  itself,  and  will  be  presented  to  observation  in  the 
order  of  its  preparation,  that  is,  each  pupil's  exhibit 
should  show  first  the  work  first  collected  from  that  pupil, 
and  so  on  through  to  the  last.  In  no  other  way  can  a  cor- 
rect estimate  of  each  pupil's  progress  or  lack  of  improve- 
ment be  so  readily  reached. 

The  lighter  material,  especially  maps,  drawings,  and 
mounted  specimens  of  plants  and  flowers,  should  be 
strung  on  tape  or  strong  cord  and  placed  around  the 
room  on  the  walls. 


78  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Some  days  previous  to  the  exposition,  several  of  the 
more  advanced  boys  and  girls  should  be  appointed  to  act 
as  ushers,  and  should  be  drilled  carefully  in  their  duties 
of  conducting  the  public  through  the  room,  and  of  ex- 
plaining clearly  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  work  on 
display.  General  directions  must  also  be  given  before- 
hand to  the  school  as  a  whole,  and  each  pupil  not  an 
vsher  should  be  near  the  exhibit  of  his  own  work,  ready 
to  answer  any  question  about  it. 

The  value  of  such  a  display,  carefully  inspected  by  a 
public  which  may  be  at  first  indifferent  or  adversely 
critical  is  evident  to  anyone,  but  can  be  fully  appreciated 
only  by  those  who  have  tried  the  plan  here  outlined  and 
have  seen  the  crowd  of  visitors  become  interested  and 
then  enthusiastic. 

Good  results  will  be  all  the  more  marked  and  per- 
manent if  it  can  be  arranged  beforehand  to  make  the  oc- 
casion a  neighborhood  holiday,  and  have  a  "  basket  din- 
ner" served  on  the  grounds.  After  dinner  the  exposi- 
tion material  can  be  packed  away,  the  best  exhibits  be- 
ing reserved  by  the  teacher  to  be  put  on  display  later  at 
the  County  Institute,  and  the  room  made  ready  for  the 
final  exercises,  which  may  be  held  either  in  the  after- 
noon or  at  night,  according  to  circumstances. 

The  Exhibition  and  Commencement. —  The  final  pro- 
gram should  consist  of  the  "  exhibition  "  feature  of  the 
exercises,  which,  while  more  attractive  to  most  of  the  com- 
munity than  the  exposition,  can,  at  the  same  time,  be 
made  quite  as  truly  an  exhibit  of  the  pupils'  work  along 
certain  very  important  lines.  Every  grade  should  be 
represented  upon  the  program,  but  the  prominent  share 
will  belong  to  the  pupils  who  have  finished  the  course 
of  study  and  who  are,  therefore,  celebrating  their  first 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  79 

commencement.  Even  in  states  which  do  not  provide  by 
law,  as  nearly  all  do,  for  graduation  from  the  common- 
school  course,  this  commencement  feature  can  be  made 
prominent;  and  it  should  be,  so  long  as  the  idea  is  kept 
well  to  the  fore  that  the  work  done  is  simply  prepara- 
tory to  higher  and  better  work  in  some  advanced  school. 
If  possible,  some  man  or  woman  of  scholarship  and  ex- 
perience, who  can  speak  briefly  and  pointedly,  should  be 
secured  to  close  the  program,  and  so  to  close  it  that 
everyone  present  shall  be  filled  freshly  with  inspiration, 
and  aspiration  to  be  and  to  do. 

Suggestive  Program  for  the  Last  Day. —  In  order  to 
summarize  the  preceding  paragraphs,  and  present  their 
substance  in  concrete  form,  the  following  program  is 
suggested  for  the  exercises  of  the  last  day.  It  can  be 
adapted  to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  any  school 

10:00  A.  M. — The  Exposition  of  the  Term's  Work. 

Ten  minutes'  address  by  the  teacher,  stating  the 
purpose  and  character  of  the  Exposition,  and 
welcoming  the  public. 

Inspection  of  the  various  exhibits,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  teacher,  ushers,  and  other  pupils, 
until  noon. 
12:00  M. — A  "Basket  Dinner"  outdoors  if  the  weather  permits. 

This  should  be  made  a  social  feature. 

After   dinner,   the   schoolroom   is   cleared  for  the 
afternoon  exercises. 
2:30  P.  M. — The  Graduation  Exercises. 

Music. 

Invocation. 

Music. 

Brief    description    of    the    term's     work,    by    the 

,    teacher. 

Relation :     "  The   Spanish- American  War." 

Essay :     "  Within  the  Walls  of  Pekin." 

Music. 


8o  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Recitation :     Selection    from    "  Widderin's    Race" 

(Hayne). 
Oration :     Finer  than  Gold. 
A  Dialogue.^ 

Music. 

Debate :     "  Is  it  necessary  for  civilized  nations  to 

make  war  upon  one  another  ?  " 
Music. 

Delivery  of  certificates  or  diplomas. 
Dismissal. 

(2)  THE  CITY  SCHOOL 

All  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  econom- 
ical organization  and  administration  of  the  individual 
school  in  the  country  are  valid  also  in  the  case  of  the  in- 
dividual school  in  the  city.  Their  application  needs  but 
slight  modification  to  suit  the  different  environment. 
Only  such  modification  will,  therefore,  be  discussed  in 
detail  in  the  pages  immediately  following. 
A.  Equipment 
(a)  Grounds  and  Buildings  ^ 

The  Site. —  The  paramount  considerations  that  should 
govern  the  selection  of  a  site  are  the  health,  comfort,  and 
convenience  of  the  pupils.  In  cities,  each  school  build- 
ing should  be  so  placed  as  to  stand  at  least  a  block  away 
from  street-car  lines  and  streets  on  which  there  is  heavy 
traffic,  and  the  streets  and  alleys  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  buildings  should  be  paved  with  asphalt. 
City  authorities  are  hardly  beginning,  yet,  to  act  upon  the 

^  Write  to  F.  A.  Owens  Publishing  Co.,  Dansville,  N.  Y.,  for  dialogue 
books. 

2  Refer  to  "School  Sanitation  and  Decoration,"  Burrage  &  Bailey; 
**  School  Hygiene,"  Shaw ;  Report  of  the  National  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, '93-4,  2:  1 301;  Proceedings  of  Nat.  Ed.  Association,  '97,  996;  "The 
Sanitary  Conditions  for  School  Houses,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circ.  No.  3, 
1891;  "  Essentials  of  School  Architecture,"  Bruce;  The  Outlook,  72:  218. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  8l 

knowledge  that  all  uncouth  noises  waste  nerve  energy. 
The  building  should  also  be  out  of  reach  of  the  smoke 
and  smells  of  factories ;  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
have  the  neighborhood  free  from  the  moral  contamina- 
tion of  saloons,  tobacco  shops,  and  disorderly  houses. 
The  young  are  so  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  environ- 
ment that,  so  far  as  society  is  responsible,  there  should 
be  nothing  with  which  they  come  in  contact  while  in 
school  that  can  offend  or  corrupt  either  physical  or  moral 
sense.  The  Board  of  Education  or  the  City  Council 
should  have  power,  under  the  city  charter,  to  prohibit 
the  establishment  of  any  distracting  or  contaminating 
industry  within  two  blocks  of  a  school  building. 

More  Space  Needed. —  It  is  entirely  safe  to  say  that 
there  is  not  a  public  school  in  any  city  of  the  United 
States  which  has  so  large  a  plot  of  ground  as  it  should 
have.  Poverty  in  land  varies  from  a  smalh  strip  around 
the  building  to  not  so  much  as  a  square  inch  outside  the 
site  actually  occupied.  Even  in  building  a  prison  many 
cities  are  more  mindful  of  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
future  inmates,  and  provide  more  air  space  and  sun  space, 
than  for  the  schools.  Each  pupil  should  have,  on  the  play- 
ground, at  least  five  times  as  much  room  as  he  has  floor 
space  in  the  school  building,  and  although  this  is  over 
twice  as  much  as  is  suggested  by  some  authorities  it  is 
little  enough.  In  any  case,  the  grounds  should  be  large 
enough  to  prevent  the  nearest  buildings  from  interfering 
with  the  supply  of  light  in  the  class  rooms.  In  every  city 
the  school  authorities  should  have  power  to  condemn  real 
estate  for  school  purposes ;  it  is  no  less  important,  surely, 
that  the  community  should  have  right  of  eminent  domain 
in  the  grave  matter  of  school  sites  than  in  the  case  of 
streets  or  railways. 

Roark's  Econ. — 6 


82  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Ornamentation  of  Grounds. —  In  ornamenting  city 
school  grounds  a  compromise  must  be  made  between  the 
need  of  free  play  and  need  of  aesthetic  environment. 
Such  a  compromise  may  be  effected  by  grouping  trees 
and  shrubbery,  leaving  open  areas  for  play.  Oppor- 
tunity for  spontaneous  exercise  is  more  important  than 
ornamentation,  but  still  no  school  yard  need  be  wholly 
barren  of  grass  and  trees. 

Th^  Building. —  City  school  buildings  are  now  planned 
from  within  out;  the  needs  of  the  school  are  provided 
for,  and  the  exterior  architecture  is  made  to  fit  these. 
Not  so  long  ago  it  was  the  other  way.  The  needs  that 
are  vital  to  the  school  and  that  the  architect  must  ade- 
quately provide  for  are  few,  but  imperative.  What- 
ever the  building  lacks  it  must  not  lack  these:  spacious 
rooms  and  corridors,  with  ample  facilities  for  both  nat- 
ural and  artificial  lighting,  a  sufficient  number  of  wide 
exits  to  empty  the  house  safely  and  quickly,  adequate 
heating  and  ventilating  apparatus,  an  assembly  hall,  suf- 
ficient toilet  accommodations,  and  an  "  emergency  room." 
Other  features  are  more  or  less  needful,  but  these  are  in- 
dispensable to  true  economy. 

No  building  should  be  erected  to  house  more  than 
twelve  hundred  pupils,  because  more  than  that  number 
can  not  be  economically  provided  for  under  one  roof 
either  in  supervision  and  teaching  care,  or  in  material 
comfort  and  safety.  Neither  should  any  building  have 
more  than  two  stories  above  the  ground  level,  for  reasons 
of  safety  and  comfort. 

Corridors  and  Exits. —  Hallways  should  be  at  least 
fifteen  feet  wide,  and  they  had  better  be  twenty ;  the  doors 
leading  into  them  from  the  several  rooms  should  swing 
outward  and  toward  the  nearest  stairway.     There  must 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  83 

be  in  the  corridors  no  obstruction  of  any  sort;  the  way 
to  the  exits  must  be  clear.  The  files  of  pupils,  passing 
in  and  out,  should  not  have  to  make  a  sharp  turn  to  get 
into  or  away  from  a  stairway.  The  stairways  should  be 
guarded  by  very  strong  and  high  balustrades,  and  should 
have  two  hand  rails  on  each  side,  one  lower  than  the 
other,  so  that  pupils  of  different  sizes  may  have  the  help 
and  protection  afforded  by  a  good  handhold.  The  doors 
at  the  exits  must  open  outward;  this  is,  in  some  states, 
required  by  law. 

Heating  and  Ventilating. —  There  are  several  good 
systems  for  heating  and  ventilating  city  school  buildings. 
The  details  must  be  committed  to  the  care  of  an  expert 
architect,  who  should  be  held  to  the  absolute  requirement 
to  supply  warm,  clean  air  to  the  whole  building  in  such 
quantities  as  to  ensure  a  complete  change  about  every  five 
or  six  minutes. 

Cloak  Closets. —  The  cloak  closets  should  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  accessibility,  cleanliness,  and  dryness. 
They  must  be  so  arranged  that  wraps,  umbrellas,  and 
overshoes  will  dry  quickly  and  without  giving  off  damp- 
ness or  odor  into  the  air  of  the  hallways  or  rooms.  These 
details,  also,  can  be  provided  for  only  by  the  expert  school 
architect. 

The  Assembly  Hall. —  Every  school  building  should 
have  a  well-lighted,  comfortably  chaired  assembly  hall, 
with  seating  capacity  somewhat  greater  than  the  enroll- 
ment of  pupils.  The  value  of  such  a  hall  is  now  recog- 
nized by  all  practical  principals,  and  by  most  school 
boards.  It  is  a  prime  factor  in  the  successful  correlation 
of  school  and  community  and  is  indispensable  to  the  best 
work  within  the  school  itself. 

Communicating  Rooms. —  It  will  often  be  convenient 


84  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

and  a  means  of  saving  time,  if  two  or  more  rooms  are  so 
built  that  they  can  be  thrown  into  one.  There  are  many 
exercises  in  which  a  hundred  or  more  pupils  of  the  same 
grade  can  take  part  together,  although  for  regular  class 
work  they  should  be  divided  into  two  or  more  groups  in 
separate  rooms. 

Toilet  Rooms. —  Provision  must  be  made  not  merely 
for  water  closets  but  for  toilet  rooms,  with  mirrors,  lava- 
tories, and  a  good  supply  of  soap  and  towels*: 

In  an  increasing  number  of  cities  facilities  for  bathing 
are  being  put  into  school  buildings,  and  if  these  are  used 
under  proper  regulations  the  results  are  excellent. 

The  conditions  that  are  imperatively  requisite  in  the 
toilet  rooms  are  (i)  abundance  of  light,  (2)  privacy, 
(3)  cleanliness,  (4)  automatic  flushing,  (5)  perfect  san- 
itary plumbing,  including  separate  ventilation  through 
hi^h  stacks. 

Library. —  There  is  great  need  in  each  school  building 
of  a  room  specially  fitted  up  for  use  as  a  library  and 
reading  room.  No  matter  how  small  the  collection  of 
books  may  be  they  should  be  carefully  indexed  by  sub- 
jects, on  the  card  plan,  and  pupils  should  be  trained  both 
in  ready  use  of  the  card  index  and  in  the  handling  of  the 
books  as  tools  to  work  with. 

The  "  Emergency  Room." —  There  should  be  on  each 
floor  of  the  school  building  a  room  equipped  with  a 
lounge  or  cot,  an  easy  chair  or  two,  and  simple  medicines 
and  other  provisions  for  help  in  cases  of  sudden  illness 
or  accidents  of  any  sort.  Such  a  room  would  add  great- 
ly to  the  comfort  and  safety  of  the  weak  and  suffering 
among  the  pupils,  and  to  the  peace  of  mind  of  principal 
and  teachers. 

The   foregoing   discussion    of   the   building   has    pur- 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  85 

posely  been  made  brief,  because  the  public  mind  is  to-day 
so  awakened  upon  the  subject  that  school  boards  are  held 
closely  to  their  duty  in  the  erection  of  buildings.  In  every 
case,  when  the  erection  of  a  new  building  is  about  to  be 
undertaken,  the  school  board  should  consult  with  the  sup- 
erintendent and  principals,  an^  their  suggestions  upon  the 
practical  working  needs  of  the  school  should  be  carefully 
embodied  in  the  architect's  plans.  It  only  remains  to  add 
that  architectural  harmony  and  proper  decoration  within 
and  without  are  so  important  as  almost  to  be  classed  as 
essentials.^ 

An  architecture  of  simple  dignity  and  l)eauty,  hallways 
and  rooms  decorated  with  copies  of  classic  statuary  and 
of  the  world's  best  pictures,  have  an  educative  influence 
all  the  more  powerful  because  their  effect  is  largely  sub- 
conscious. 

Drinking  Facilities. —  Decency  and  health  require  that 
each  pupil  shall  have  his  own  drinking  cup,  and  that 
water  should  be  taken  from  the  bucket  or  jar  through 
a  faucet,  not  by  dipping  the  drinking  cups  in. 
(b)  Furniture  and  Apparatus 

The  furniture  of  a  city  school  need  not  be  different  in 
any  respect,  upon  pedagogical  grounds,  from  that  of  the 
rural  school.  There  is  the  same  need  in  the  one  school 
as  in  the  other  for  the  single,  adjustable  desk  and  seat, 
for  the  same  sort  of  blackboards,  for  bookcases  and 
tables,  and  means  of  water  supply.^ 

^ "  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration,"  p.  94  et  seq.;  *'  Recent  School 
Architecture,"  issued  by  Supt.  Public  Inst,,  Albany,  New  York;  "  Decorating 
School  Rooms,"  Report  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Education,  '95-6,  2:  1363; 
Twenty-second  Report  of  State  Supt.  of  Ills.,  p.  CXVII;  **  Sanitary  Condi- 
tions for  School  Houses,"  Giro.  No.  173,  Bureau  of  Education,  Wash- 
ington. 

2  Shaw's  "School  Hygiene,"  p.  116;  Kotelmann's  "School  Hygiene" 
(Bardeen.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.);  Educational  Review,  18:  9;  Report  of  Nat. 
Commissioner  of   Ed.,   '98-9,    i:   611. 


86  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  apparatus  needed  by  the  city  school  differs  from 
that  required  in  the  country  school  of  similar  grade  only 
in  the  nature-study  work.  In  the  city,  facilities  are 
needed  in  the  way  of  museums  and  window  gardens  that 
in  the  country  are  unnecessary  because  of  the  abundance 
of  nature-study  material  all  about  the  rural  school. 

Of  course,  when  abundant  apparatus  can  be  afforded, 
better  teaching  can  be  done  (by  no  means  necessarily 
will  be  done)  .with  it  than  without  it.  But  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  if  the  pupil  is  too  richly  supplied  with 
apparatus  he  is  apt  to  grow  into  the  conviction  that  good 
work  can  not  be  done  without  it,  whereas,  often,  the  best 
work  is  done  in  a  laboratory  whose  equipment  is  less 
than  good,  but  is  well  supplemented  by  the  ingenuity  and 
contrivance  of  the  student. 

It  is  so  common  now  to  find  even  in  buildings  not 
otherwise  fully  equipped,  such  conveniences  as  automatic 
program  regulators,  and  telephone  connections  between 
the  office  and  the  several  rooms  that  it  is  not  needful  to 
enter  here  into  any  detail  with  regard  to  these  things. 
They  are  not  absolutely  necessary  and  are  not  without 
objections,  but  are  very  helpful  in  directing  the  routine 
of  work. 

B.    Organization  and  Administration. 

(a)   Beginning  the  Session 

A  Preliminary  Meeting. —  The  principal  should  meet 

his  teachers,  all  of  them  together,  a  few  days  before  the 

opening  of  the  school.     The  objects  of  this  meeting  are 

( 1 )  to  give  directions  regarding  the  coming  work ;  and 

(2)  to  inspire  each  teacher  afresh  with  zeal  to  be  and  to 
do  for  the  sake  of  the  children.  The  teachers  must  be 
brought  to  feel  that  the  work  which  they  are  about  to 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  87 

resume  is  full  of  privilege  and  joy;  that  whatever  of 
vigor  and  mental  riches  and  spiritual  uplift  they  have  ac- 
quired during  the  past  year  and  the  closing  vacation  is . 
capital  that  owes  large  dividends  to  the  pupils. 

The  First  Day  of  School. —  Each  teacher  should  have 
a  clear  and  detailed  plan  of  the  first  day's  work  in  mind 
before  entering  her  room.  This  plan  must  provide  for 
the  following  essentials :  The  sincere  welcoming  of  each 
pupil,  the  recognition  of  each  one's  individuality;  a 
friendly,  general  chat  about  the  way  the  summer  was 
spent ;  clear  and  explicit  information  and  directions  as  to 
the  books  and  other  supplies  to  be  newly  purchased;  a 
brief,  crisp  review  of  some  fundamentals  in  la§t  year's 
work;  and,  lastly,  the  assigning  of  some  lessons  to  be 
recited  the  next  day.  Each  pupil  should  go  away  with 
the  feeling,  at  the  close  of  the  first  day,  that  it  is  better 
to  be  in  school  than  out,  and  that  he  and  the  teacher  are 
going  to  be  good  friends. 

The  teacher  can  not  be  too  careful  and  explicit  in  di- 
recting the  pupils  regarding  the  new  books  and  sup- 
plies needed.  A  safe  plan  is  to  give  to  each  a  printed  list 
with  the  things  required  plainly  marked. 

The  crust  of  forgetfulness  that  has  formed  over  much 
of  what  was  learned  last  year  should  be  broken  by  a 
brief,  judicious  review  of  the  salient  points  in  the  sub- 
ject-matter covered  by  last  year's  work.  Such  a  review, 
informal  and  sympathetic,  is  admirably  adapted  to  show 
the  pupil  his  needs  and  to  swing  the  mind  into  the  path 
of  study  again.     It  will,  too,  reveal  much  to  the  teacher. 

The  custom  which  has  so  long  prevailed,  of  beginning 
real  work  only  in  the  second  week,  is  to  be  unqualifiedly 
condemned.  The  pupils  have,  at  the  opening  of  school 
the  enthusiasm  born  of  change  from  the  summer's  idle- 


88  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

ness  (or  of  the  interests  kindled  by  the  vacation  schools) 
and  this  enthusiasm  must  be  yoked  to  active  work  imme- 
diately. No  precious  days  or  hours  should,  be  lost  in 
getting  ready  to  begin. 

(b)   Conducting  the  School 

Any  school  must,  in  order  to  do  good  work,  be  more 
than  a  mere  aggregation  of  unit  pupils  or  unit  groups; 
it  must  be  a  living  organism,  its  parts  cooperating  for  a 
common  purpose,  the  whole  pervaded  and  animated  by 
the  same  spirit.  Such  conditions  it  is  the  function  of  the 
principal  to  bring  about.  His  business  is  to  create  the 
distinctive  atmosphere  of  the  school,  to  have  a  clear  and 
definite  educational  policy  and  to  bring  each  teacher  into 
a  sympathetic  and  appreciative  understanding  of  it.  ,He 
must  arouse  within  each  the  spirit  of  cooperation  and 
mutual  helpfulness,  and  a  profound  sense  of  responsibil- 
ity, without  which  nothing  permanent  can  be  done. 

The  Principal's  Equipment. —  The  principal  must 
know  his  building  from  basement  to  roof;  his  visits  of 
inspection  must  be  frequent  and  effective.  He  must 
know  his  teachers,  their  personal  and  professional  worth. 
He  must  know  at  sight  and,  if  possible,  by  name  every 
pupil  in  his  school,  and  ought  to  be  somewhat  acquainted 
with  their  home  environment  and  their  capacity  and  in- 
clination or  disinclination  for  work.  He  must  know  the 
system  of  which  his  school  is  a  part.  These  things  he 
must  know  almost  automatically,  as  the  immediate  tools 
of  his  work ;  the  more  he  can  have  besides  of  knowledge 
and  culture  the  better  principal  will  he  be. 

The  principal  comes  into  professional  contact  with  his 
teachers  in  two  ways,  through  teachers'  meetings  and  by 
inspecting  class, work. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  89 

Teachers'  Meetings.—  A  principal  should  meet  all  his 
teachers  together  not  oftener  than  once  a  month,  and  the 
time  should  fall  just  after  the  principals'  meeting,  so  that 
whatever  of  inspiration  and  enthuiasm  marked  that 
meeting  may  be  carried  at  once  with  freshness  and  zest 
into  the  conference  of  teachers  in  the  individual  school. 

Objects. —  Teachers'  meetings  should  be  held  mainly 
to  get  the  helping  touch  of  professional  comradeship.  To 
secure  it  there  must  be  some  basis  of  serious  work.  This 
basis  wall  necessarily  be  determined  by  local  and  immedi- 
ate needs.  There  is  fine  suggestiveness  in  the  following 
sentences  from  the  letter  of  a  practical  principal: 
"  There  is  a  great  and  constantly  growing  mass  of  in- 
teresting and  profitable  material  with  which  teachers  are 
not  acquainted.  There  is  a  knowledge  of  the  purposes 
and  functions  of  school  life  of  which  they  have  a  very 
dim  conception ;  there  are  theories  and  methods  of  pres- 
entation which  they  neither  understand  nor  appreciate. 
There  is  a  vivifying  life  principle  about  school  work 
which  is  the  soul  of  the  school,  which  is  entirely  absent 
from  many  rooms.  I  have  found  it  helpful  to  present 
any  exercise  which  would  tend  to  raise  the  standard  of 
our  teachers  in  any  of  these  directions.  The  principal's 
best  work  is,  I  believe,  that  which  inspires  his  teachers 
to  become  students,  for  a  teacher  student  is  usually  an 
excellent  student  teacher.  Such  work  is  needed  as  will 
kindle  and  keep  alive  a  fine  professional  spirit.  The 
great  danger  is  that  teachers  will  become  self-satisfied, 
drop  into  a  routine  way  of  doing  things,  and  cease  to 
make  professional  progress.  High  and  constantly  ad- 
vancing ideals  must  be  held  before  them.  There  must 
be  a  constant  inquiry  into  the  philosophy  and  success  of 
methods  used," 


90  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Althoug-h  the  work  of  any  meeting  may  be  quite  varied, 
the  whole  series  of  meetings  must  carry  through  the  year 
some  central  core  of  reading,  thought,  and  investigation. 
To  plan  such  work  wisely  is  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  a  principal. 

The  Principars  Inspection. —  The  results  of  a  visit  of 
inspection  should  be  (i)  increased  confidence  of  the 
teacher  in  the  principal  as  a  gentleman  and  as  a  super- 
visor, (2)  quickened  willingness  of  the  pupils  and  teacher 
to  work  harder,  (3)  the  noting  by  the  principal  of  points 
in  the  teacher's  work,  for  commendation  or  criticism. 

The  principal  should  have  no  cut-and-dried  formula 
of  inspection.  One  time  he  may  simply  sit  quietly  for  a 
while,  and  withdraw,  after  a  pleasant  word  of  greeting 
to  teacher  and  pupils ;  another  time  he  may  make  a  short, 
cheery  talk  to  the  pupils ;  and  at  another  lie  may  "  take 
the  room  "  and  teach  through  one  or  two  periods.  Upon 
this  last  point  it  may  be  further  said  that  the  principal 
should  teach  in  the  presence  of  the  teacher  both  to  give 
her  a  good  example  and  to  disarm  her  criticism  that  he 
"  is  always  ready  to  tell  how,  but  avoids  showing  how.'' 
But  such  teaching  should  never  be  done  with  the  air  of 
depreciating  the  teacher's  work ;  rather  should  it  be  done 
as  if  it  were  a  privilege  and  a  pleasure  the  principal  had 
asked  to  be  permitted  to  enjoy.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  a  teacher  be  criticised  in  the  presence  of  the 
pupils,  either  openly  or  by  implication. 

Teachers*  Visitings. —  A  plan  well  approved  by  prin- 
cipals who  have  tried  it,  is  to  have  a  teacher  whose  work 
is  weak  at  some  point  visit  the  class  room  of  another 
teacher  especially  skillful  in  that  particular.  More  can 
be  gained,  often,  from  such  a  visit  than  from  much  talk- 
ing and  directing  by  the  principal. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  91 

The  Principal  in  the  Office. —  A  principal  need  spend 
only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  his  working  day  in  his 
office;  and  when  there  he  should  be  much  more  than  a 
mere  clerk  and  tabulator  of  statistics. 

His  office  hours,  which  must  be  fixed  and  closely  ob- 
served, should  be  known  to  the  patrons  of  his  school. 
Any  parent,  teacher,  or  pupil  who  has  a  legitimate  cause 
for  seeing  the  principal  should  be  given  a  cordial  and 
careful  hearing  during  office  hours. 

The  Principal  as  Teacher. — The  principal  should  ex- 
ercise other  functions  than  those  of  a  clerk,  an  inspector, 
or  an  executive.  Just  as  the  teacher  of  chemistry  has  his 
own  laboratory  where  he  keeps  himself  in  fresh  and  close 
contact  with  the  problems  of  his  science,  so  the  school 
principal  should  have  his  own  laboratory  of  pedagogy  in 
which  to  test  for  himself  such  theories  of  teaching  as 
seem'  to  him  deserving  of  a  trial.  He  should  teach  at 
least  one  class  regularly.  This  class  need  not  be  from 
the  higher  grades  necessarily.  Many  a  primary  teacher 
'  would  be  saved  the  worry  of  trying  some  method  wholly 
condemned  by  her  experience,  if  the  principal  would  only 
try  it  himself  before  forcing  it  into  the  primary  rooms. 
No  good  reason  can  be  assigned  why  a  principal  should 
not  teach  a  class  each  term. 

Opening  Exercises. —  Everything  suggested  for  the 
rural  school,  regarding  opening  exercises,^  is  even  more 
strongly  to  be  urged  in  the  case  of  the  city  school.  If 
there  is  an  auditorium  in  the  building  large  enough  to 
seat  all  the  pupils  —  and  there  ought  to  be  —  the  whole 
school  should  be  assembled  at  least  twice  weekly  for  gen- 
eral exercises  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  day.  All 
but  the  two  or  three  lowest  grades  could,  with  profit, 

*  See   pp.   49-51- 


92  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

come  together  daily.  The  programs  for  these  exercises 
should  be  of  the  same  general  character  as  those  sug- 
gested for  the  rural  schools^  but  may  be  as  much  richer 
as  the  city  is  richer  than  the  country  in  art,  music,  li- 
braries, and  forensic  talent.  The  fact  is  being  pressed 
upon  the  educational  consciousness  of  the  country  to- 
day, very  earnestly,  that  the  child  should  get  many  things 
in  school,  other  than  the  facts  of  the  text-books.  The 
general  morning  exercises  are  coming  more  and  more  to 
be  recognized  and  used  as  a  means  of  culture  and  char- 
acter building. 

In  case  there  is  no  assembly  room,  each  teacher  can 
have  suitable  opening  exercises  for  her  own  grade. 

Half-day  Sessions. —  The  trend  of  city  school  manage- 
ment is  to-day  strongly  in  the  direction  of  having,  for 
the  lower  grades  at  least,  only  half-day  sessions.  In 
some  places  no  grade  has  more  than  a  half-day  session. 
Where  it  has  been  tried  the  plan  has,  almost  without  ex- 
ception, approved  itself  to  pupils,  parents,  and  school 
authorities.  If  two  sessions  are  held  daily  all  or  a  large 
part  of  one  of  them  should  be  devoted  to  study.  It  is 
as  much  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  teach  a  pupil  how 
to  study  as  to  test  the  results  of  his  effort.  If  two  ses- 
sions are  held,  whether  on  the  old  plan  or  according  to 
the  suggestion  just  made,  there  should  be  no  home  study 
required  of  any  grade  below  the  sixth  or  seventh ;  but 
all  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  practice  music  or 
drawing,  or  to  read,  at  home,  in  lieu  of  regular  lesson 
work. 

"  School  Fatigue."  ^ —  In  arranging  a  daily  program 

^Consult  Kraepelin's  "  Zur  Ueberburdungsfrage  "  Psycholog.  Rev.  6: 
204,  573;  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.  55:  511;  Report  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed., 
'95-6,  2:  1 175;  Krohn's  "Minor  Mental  Abnormalities  in  Children";  Re- 
port of  Nat.   Commissioner  of  Ed.,  '98-9,   i:  471. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  93 

for  a  city  school  the  factor  of  "  school  fatigue,"  so  called, 
must  be  taken  more  into  consideration  than  in  the  rural 
school.  In  discussing  this  it  is  necessary,  at  the  be- 
ginning, to  discriminate  between  *' weariness "  and 
"  fatigue." 

Weariness  and  Fatigue  Discriminated. —  One  writer 
says  "  weariness  is  a  fluctuating  personal  attitude  which 
is  scarcely  susceptible  of  record  in  any  form."  In  other 
and  somewhat  simpler  words,  weariness  is  due  to  lack  of 
interest  in  study  or  to  a  positive  dislike  for  it.  Arouse 
interest  and  weariness  vanishes.  Monotony,  lack  of  in- 
terest and  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  too  dif- 
ficult or  too  easy  tasks,  lack  of  evident  usefulness  in  the 
subject  studied,  are  the  most  common  and  constant  causes 
of  weariness,  and  sometimes  produce  a  veritable  mental 
nausea  in  the  pupil.     Right  teaching  is  the  only  remedy. 

Fatigue  has  been  defined  as  "  a  reduction  in  the  total 
effective  force  of  the  individual,  which  can  be  .  .  . 
measured."  Weariness,  then,  is  psychological,  while 
fatigue  is  physio-psychic  and  pathological.  Tests  have 
shown  that  a  pupil  may  be  wearied  but  not  fatigued,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  be  seriously  fatigued  even  when 
there  is  still  zest  for  work.  Some  results  of  investiga- 
tions in  this  subject  have  been  taken  to  indicate  that  the 
specific  fatigue  poison  acts  upon  the  nerve  centers  so  as 
to  inhibit  their  tendency  to  conserve  energy,  after  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  expenditure  has  been  reached,  and  thus, 
so  to  say,  the  brakes  are  taken  off  and  work  can  be  done 
with  even  greater  facility,  and  more  disastrous  conse- 
quences, than  usual.  There  is  so  little  practical  agree- 
ment among  those  who  have  written  most  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  fatigue  that  teachers  may  well  hesitate  to  accept 
any  conclusion  as  definite.     Certain  it  is  that  the  method 


94  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  detecting  fatigue  which  is  so  strongly  indorsed  by  some 
German  investigators  ^  in  this  field  is  impracticable  of 
daily  use  even  in  the  hands  of  an  expert ;  and  the  method 
has,  moreover,  been  seriously  discredited  by  experiment- 
ers in  this  country. 

Applications  to  the  Daily  Program. —  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  more  or  less  well  marked  daily  rhythm  of  capac- 
ity, or  at  least  of  effort,  in  pupils  through  the  school  day. 
Such  results  of  the  study  of  fatigue  as  are  now  applicable 
to  the  arrangement  of  a  daily  program  can  be  briefly 
stated:  (i)  The  recitation  periods  should  not  be  too 
long,  six  to  eight  minutes  in  the  lowest  grade,  and  run- 
ning up  to  thirty  or  forty  minutes  in  the  eighth  grade; 
(2)  there  should  be  frequent  rest  periods,  enlivened 
by  the  singing  of  easy  and  favorite  songs,  or  simple 
calisthenics,  or  the  reading  of  a  short  story  by  the  teacher ; 
(3-)  the  more  difficult  studies  (the  "  thought  subjects  ") 
should  be  placed  in  the  morning  before  the  first  general 
recess,  and  between  noon  and  the  afternoon  recess.  The 
''  culture  studies  "  should  occur  during  the  last  forenoon 
and  last  afternoon  sessions,  if  the  whole  day  is  used. 
One  of  the  most  important  facts  revealed  by  the  inves- 
tigations upon  fatigue  is  that,  rather  contrary  to  the 
popular  idea,  set  gymnastics  produce  or  intensify  fatigue 
instead  of  relieving  it.  Light,  spontaneous  play  is  help- 
ful. 

Fatigue  Rarely  Due  to  Study. —  There  is  a  growing 
conviction,  however,  that  at  least  below  the  high  school 
there  is  little  genuine  pathological  fatigue  which  can  be 
justly  attributed  to  overstudy.  Most  observant  teachers 
in  the  United  States  are  doubtless  ready  to  say  that  few, 

^  Griesbach's   "  Aesthesiometric   method";    Archiv   fur   Hygiene,   Vol.    24, 
p.  124;  See  Psychological  Review,  Vol.  6,  pp.  573,  599. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  .    95 

if  any,  healthy  pupils  are  injured  or  seriously  affected 
even  temporarily  by  hard  study,  if  it  is  done  under  com- 
fortable and  hygienic  physical  conditions  and  under  the 
spur  of  interest.  Many  causes  of  fatigue  lie  outside  the 
school;  there  are  dancing  lessons,  parties,  socials,  recep- 
tions, musicales,  and,  in  the  case  of  not  a  few  pupils, 
exhausting  physical  labor  or  poor  food.  Many  of  the 
results  too  readily  attributed  to  overwork  in  school,  by 
numerous  critics,  can  be  traced  directly  to  these  or  other 
extraneous  causes.  Causes  of  fatigue  may  be  inherent  in 
the  physique  of  the  child,  also.  Eye  or  ear  may  be  de- 
fective, and  the  strain  from  such  defect  is  severe  and 
fatiguing.  The  teacher  should  be  sympathetically  watch- 
ful for  cases  of  this  kind,  and  should  give  the  sufferers 
all  the  advantage  of  position  in  the  room.  In  many 
cities  medical  officers  regularly  inspect  pupils  for  the 
purpose  of  detecting,  and  prescribing  for,  defects  of  the 
sensorium. 

Again,  the  personality  and  manner  of  the  teacher  and 
his  methods  of  teaching  are  far  more  direct  and  fre- 
quent causes  of  fatigue,  as  well  as  of  weariness,  than  is 
hard  study. 

Teachers  and  pupils  can  not  be  reminded  too  often 
that  hard  study  under  favorable  conditions  is  healthful, 
not  harmfully  fatiguing ;  it  is  almost  never  the  work  that 
is  hurtful,  but  only  its  method  and  conditions. 

Fatigue  through  Misapplied  Effort. —  Pupils  often 
induce  fatigue  by  wasting  nervous  energy  through  need- 
less muscular  contractions  while  at  work.  Such  pupils 
write  or  draw  or  do  other  work  "  all  over,''  so  to  speak, 
bringing  into  activity  many  other  muscles  than  those  re- 
quired to  do  the  particular  thing  in  hand.  A  good  illus- 
tration may  be  seen  in  a  young  child  just  learning  to  use 


96  .  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

scissors;  it  will  soon  stop  cutting,  with  a  fatigued  sigh, 
and  will  even  lie  down  to  rest. 

In  connection  with  this  subject  also  are  to  be  remem- 
bered the  dangers  of  much  of  the  careful  muscular  ad- 
justment required  by  kindergarten  exercises.  Until  the 
child  is  old  enough  properly  to  coordinate  its  mus- 
cular activities,  any  attempt  at  work  requiring  close  ad- 
justment must  result  in  an  overflow  of  nervous  energy 
into  muscles  not  needed,  and  marked  fatigue  is  the  al- 
most immediate  result.^ 

If  school  authorities  will  see  that  at  school  pupils  shall 
have  comfortable  seats,  good  light,  properly  heated  and 
ventilated  rooms  in  which  to  work,  and,  above  all,  teach- 
ers over  them  who  can  arouse  genuine  interest  and  love 
of  doing ;  and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  parents  will  see  that 
at  home  the  children  eat  proper  food,  sleep  plentifully, 
and  avoid  all  dissipations,  then  but  little  complaint  will 
be  heard  about  fatigue.^ 

School  Government. —  The  control  of  a  city  school, 
just  as  that  of  any  other,  is  a  matter  of  arousing  the  in- 
terest of  the  pupils  in  legitimate  activities.  When  the 
interest  of  the  pupil  is  secured  all  is  secured. 

With  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  good  order  in  a 
city  school  nothing  further  need  be  said  than  was  said  in 
the  discussion  of  the  country  school,  except  upon  two 

*  See  the  article  by  Burke,  "  From  Fundamental  to  Accessory  in  the 
Development  of  the  Nervous  System  and  of  Movements,"  in  the  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  Vol.    6,  p.   25. 

^  See  for  exhaustive  discussions  of  fatigue  the  following:  Bulletin  No. 
36,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison;  Report  of  the  National  Corii- 
missioner  of  Education,  '94—5,  i :  449-;  Report  of  National  Educational  As- 
sociation, *98,  550;  Growth  of  the  Brain,  Donaldson  (Scribners,  N.  Y.); 
Psychological  Review,  7:  466,  547;  Educational  Review,  15:  246;  **  La  Fa- 
tigue intellectuelle,"  Binet  and  Henri;  "The  Study  of  Children,"  Warner 
(MacMillan  Co.)  ;  Matter  of  interest  will  also  be  found  in  "  School  Deport- 
ment and 'the  Weather,"  Educational  Review,  19:  160;  and  in  Psychological 
Review  Monograph  No.   10. 


THE  CITY  SCHOOL  97 

points,  the  relative  authority  and  duty  of  principal  and 
teachers,  and  the  plan  known  as  ''  pupil  self-government." 

Each  teacher  should  be  responsible  for  the  order  in  her 
own  room,  and  should  never  call  in  the  principal  to  re- 
inforce her,  or  send  a  pupil  to  the  office  for  correction, 
unless  the  emergency  is  extreme.  The  teacher,  knowing 
the  facts  at  first  hand,  is  better  able  to  do  justice,  and 
keeping  the  matter  in  her  own  hands  strengthens  her 
authority ;  to  call  for  aid  is  a  sign  of  weakness. 

Pupil  Self-government. —  Since  1896  a  plan  has  been 
tried  in  several  cities  of  this  country  which,  according 
to  the  claims  of  its  advocates,  relieves  principals  and 
teachers  of  a  large  share  of  the  burden  of  school 
government  by  transferring  it  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
pupils  themselves.^  Briefly,  the  plan  consists  in  organiz- 
ing the  school  (at  least  the  upper  grades)  into  a  com- 
munity with  its  own  legislative  body  and  officers,  that 
frame  and  execute  laws  compelling  the  good  behavior 
of  the  pupils.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  when  the  plan  is 
successful  the  results  must  be  excellent.  It  is  a  thorough, 
real,  and  practical  ti^aining  in  the  responsibilities  and 
privileges  of  citizenship,  and  just  such  training  it  has 
long  been  considered  the  special  duty  of  the  public  school 
to  give.  Such  a  plan,  successfully  carried  out,  is  more 
than  merely  an  aid  to  the  good  government  of  the  school ; 
it  IS  also  a  laboratory  method  of  teaching  civics.  At 
least  one  similar,  and  successful,  experiment  in  giving 
boys  and  girls  practical  training  in  citizenship  has  been 
made  outside  the  schools,^  and  from  the  records  of  this 

1  See  School  and  Home  Education,  Vol,  18,  pp.  238,  309;  Review  of  Re- 
views, Vol.  20,  p.  6*73. 

2  See  Accounts  of  the  George  Junior  Republic,  at  Freeville,  N.  Y.,  in 
Review  of  Reviews,  Vol.  13,  p.  572;  McClure's  Magazine,  Vol.  9,  p.  735; 
World's  Work,  Vol.  2,  p.    1296. 

Roark's  Econ. — 7 


98  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

experiment  much  can  be  gained  that  will  be  helpful  to 
all  teachers  who  strive  to  prepare  their  pupils  for  living 
in  a  self-governing  American  community. 

(c)   Closing  the  School 

The  individual  city  school  should  have  its  closing  ex- 
ercises after  much  the  same  plan  as  those  of  the  rural 
school.  There  should  be  no  "  letting  down ''  during  the 
last  few  weeks,  no  hasty  reviewing  for  a  final  examina- 
tion to  determine  promotions,  but  a  steady,  happy  hold-  . 
ing  to  the  work  with  increasing  power  and  constancy, 
and  a  series  of  public  exercises  (including  an  exposition) 
on  the  last  day,  which  shall  leave  in  each  pupil  a  feeling 
of  regret  that  school  is  over.  During  the  last  week  of 
the  session,  as  during  the  first,  each  teacher  should  show 
by  daily  work  and  example  that  it  is  good  to  be  a  student, 
that  there  is  no  pleasure  so  great  as  that  which  comes 
from  righteous  activity. 

(3)  THE  COLLEGE  ^ 

The  discussion  of  the  distinctive  function  of  the  col- 
lege, the  curriculum,  the  shortening  of  the  course,  elec- 
tives,  and  such  matters,  will  be  undertaken  later,  and  only 
some  suggestions  upon  the  material  and  administrative 
side  of  college  management  will  be  offered  here.  • 

A.  Buildings  and  Equipment 
All  suggestions  made  with  regard  to  the  structure  of 
city  school  buildings,  and  their  equipment  and  ornamen- 
tation, apply  also  to  the  housings  of  a  college.  If  there 
be  money  enough  each  department  of  college  work  may 
have  its  own  building,  and  there  should,  of  course,  be 

^  Consult   Thwing's    "  College    Administration,"    Century    Co. 


THE  COLLEGE  99 

architectural  plan  and  symmetry  in  each  building  and  all 
the  structures  should  be  grouped  upon  the  grounds  with 
regard  to  the  best  aesthetic  effect.  Beauty  of  material 
environment  is  a  factor  in  character  making  which  the 
college  can  not  afford  to  be  indifferent  about  and  it  must 
call  in  the  expert  architect  and  the  artistic  landscape 
gardener. 

Assembly  Halls. —  If  the  expense  can  be  afforded,  a 
college  should  have  both  a  chapel  for  the  daily  meetings 
of  the  students  and  faculty  in  religious  and  other  exer- 
cises, and  an  auditorium  for  the  seating  of  at  least  twice 
as  many  as  the  chapel  is  designed  to  accommodate.  The 
larger  hall  would  be  used  on  all  occasions,  and  they 
should  not  be  few,  when  exercises  were  held  which  the 
general  public  would  attend.  The  assembly  hall  should 
be  fully  equipped  for  illustrated  lectures,  and  should  have 
a  good  stage  and  some  stock  scenery.  A  good  musical 
instrument,  piano  or  pipe  organ,  is  an  indispensable  part 
of  the  furnishing  of  chapel  and  auditorium. 

Cottages  vs.  Dormitories. —  Unless  the  college  is  sit- 
uated in  a  small  town  where  the  community  is  in  full 
sympathy  with  the  institution,  it  will  usually  have  to 
offer  sufficient  lodging  and  boarding  facilities  to  accom- 
modate the  majority  of  its  students.  In  such  a  case,  the 
cottage  system  is  preferable,  on  the  whole,  to  dormitories, 
and  the  cost  of  cottages  is  not  much  more  than  that  of 
properly  constructed  dormitories. 

If  dormitories  are  built  they  should  have  sound-proof 
floors  and  walls,  and  should  be  fitted  with  the  most 
hygienic  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus,  and  the 
plumbing  of  bath  rooms  and  closets  should  be  above  sus- 
picion. Although  such  suggestions  are  most  matter-of- 
course,  yet  they  are  seldom  acted  upon  except  by  the 


100  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

older  and  wealthier  colleges;  but  whatever  the  college 
offers  —  whether  much  or  little  —  should  be  the  best, 
the  safest,  and  the  most  economical  of  student  health  and 
energy. 

B.     Organization  of  the  Session 

A  Basic  Unity  in  all  Educational  Practice. —  There 
is  need  of  insistent  reiteration  of  the  fact  that  through- 
out the  methodology  of  education  there  is  a  basic  unity 
from  the  primary  school  to  the  highest  university. 
However  various  and  even  diverse  may  be  the  modes  of 
applying  fundamental  principles,  the  principles  themselves 
remain  the  same;  otherwise  no  science  or  philosophy  of 
education  would  be  possible. 

College  interior  administration  rests  upon  the  same 
principles  as  the  interior  administration  of  the  lower , 
schools.  There  is  no  counsel  good  for  the  teacher  of 
the  one  room  country  school  that  is  not  equally  good  for 
the  college  professor  or  college  president,  differences 
being  observed  in  degree  but  not  in  kind.  The  error 
of  not  fully  recognizing  this  truth  is  one  of  the  gravest 
to  be  noted  in  current  educational  theory  and  practice. 
College  men  have  too  long  supposed  that  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  educationists  are  only  for  the  teachers  of 
primary  schools.  No  one  thing  is  more  needed  by  col- 
leges to-day  than  that  their  professors  should  make  care- 
ful, honest,  sympathetic  study  of  the  science  and  phi- 
losophy of  education  as  a  profession. 

Work  Should  Begin  at  Once. —  The  chief  concern  of 
college  authorities,  at  the  opening  of  the  annual  session, 
should  be  to  get  all  students,  and  especially  those  entering 
for  the  first  time,  quickly  and  happily  at  work.  The 
waste  of  time  and  energy  that  still  characterizes  the  open- 
ing days  of  the  session  in  many  colleges  is  lamentable, 


THE  COLLEGE  loi 

to  use  no  stronger  term.  Almost  without  exception 
every  student  brings  ambition,  enthusiasm,  and  purpose, 
to  the  opening  of  the  college  year,  and  to  permit  these 
motives  to  be  dissipated  through  lack  of  definite  work 
to  do,  while  days  are  consumed  in  ineffective  efforts  to 
finish  entrance  examinations  and  get  classes  together,  is 
nothing  less  than  criminal.  Within  three  days  at  the  ut- 
most every  class  should  be  organized  and  each  student, 
should  have  his  full  quota  of  work  assigned  him.  In 
this  way  best  can  the  idly  inclined,  the  homesick,  and  the 
easily  discouraged  be  put  in  the  safe  road,  and  the, alert 
and  industrious  kept  from  a  chafing  dissatisfaction. 
There  is  no  better  tonic  and  prophylactic  than  earnest, 
happy  work. 

Business  System  Necessary. —  To  the  prompt  and 
effective  organization  of  college  work  business  method 
and  system  are  as  necessary  as  to  the  successful  organi- 
zation of  a  commercial  enterprise.  Everything,  from 
the  president's  office  to  the  janitor's  room,  should  bear 
the  stamp  of  business  precision  and  efficiency.  The 
clerical  staff  should  be  large  enough  and  skilled  enough 
to  prevent  any  delay  in  registering  names,  receipting  for 
fees,  assignment  of  lodging,  and  directing  the  movements 
of  incoming  students. 

C.    Tpie  Maintenance  of  Good  Order 

"  Town  and  Gown." —  A  tradition  from  which  many 
colleges  still  suffer,  but  from  which  they  seem  to  make 
little  effort  to  "free  themselves,  is  that  college  students 
constitute  a  class  to  whom  the  laws  governing  other  citi- 
zens are  not  expected  to  apply.  The  sooner  students  are 
made  to  understand  clearly  that  they  may  expect  no 
privileges  or  immunities  that  are  not  granted  to  all  citi- 
zens, whether  in  college  or  out  of  it,  the  sooner  will  the 


IQ«  I :  .iQRGANIZATIQN  AND  MANAGEMENT 

number  of  student  escapades  and  pranks  show  a  marked 
decrease.  The  faculty  and  the  civic  authorities  should 
cooperate  in  securing  the  proper  legal  punishment  of 
students  who  transgress  law,  whether  they  do  so  in  town 
or  on  the  college  grounds.  A  young  man  does  not,  by 
matriculating  in  a  college,  escape  from  any  of  the  obli- 
gations of  citizenship;  rather  does  he  by  that  act  of  de- 
voting himself  to  the  intellectual  life  also  commit  him- 
self to  the  finer  civic  life.  The  level  of  good  citizenship 
ought  to  be  higher  in  the  college  than  outside.  A  strong 
university  president  well  defined  the  attitude  the  college 
authorities  should  hold  toward  the  students  in  this  matter 
when  he  wrote,  "  I  would  have  pleasure  in  all  amuse- 
ments or  frolics  which  do  not  outrage  decency,  endanger 
persons,  injure  property,  or  interfere  with  the  orderly 
progress  of  affairs.  When  one  transcends  these  bounds 
he  should  be  punished,  and  no  more  useful  lesson  can  be 
taught  to  students  than  that  they  stand  upon  no  different 
footing  from  all  other  people  in  this  regard." 

Need  of  Right  Interests. —  With  college  students  pre- 
cisely as  with  pupils  in  the  elementary  school,  the  main- 
tenance of  good  order  depends  upon  the  awakening  and 
directing  of  right  interests.  The  average  student,  if  kept 
occupied  with  interesting  work  and  left  free  from  un- 
necessary and  irritating  requirements,  will  give  the  col- 
lege authorities  little  or  no  trouble. 

Teaching  Power  the  Greatest  Factor. —  The  teaching 
power  of  the  men  and  women  who  make  up  the  college 
faculty  is  one  of  the  first  and  greatest  in  the  list  of  in- 
fluences that  make  for  good  in  the  life  of  the  student. 
The  conviction  that  knowledge  of  a  subject  by  no  means 
necessarily  fits  its  possessor  to  teach  that  subject  inspir- 
ingly  is  gradually  forcing  a  way  into  the  conservatism 


THE  COLLEGE  103 

of  colleges,  long  the  strongest  strongholds  of  opposition 
to  the  idea  that  teaching  is  a  skilled  profession.  The  man 
who  cares  more  for  his  subject,  for  his  own  growth  of 
knowledge  and  skill  in  it,  than  for  making  it  a  means  of 
growth  to  his  pupils  may  be  an  expert  physicist,  or 
Hellenist,  or  engineer,  but  he  assuredly  is  not  a  good 
teacher.^ 

Mere  Knowledge  not  Sufficient. —  The  college  profes- 
sor must  know  his  subject,  it  goes  without  saying,  but 
added  thereto,  before  he  can  teach,  he  must  know  also 
the  disciplinary  and  cultural  value  of  that  subject,  and 
must  be  filled  with  a  consuming  zeal  to  use  it  to  the  ut- 
most in  the  development  of  his  pupils.  The  chief  func- 
tion of  the  teacher  is  to  inspire,  and  to  this  end  he  must 
use  knowledge  as  a  means  only. 

When  all  who  meet  young  men  and  women  in  the  col- 
lege class  room  take  this  attitude  toward  the  work  to  be 
done  there,  and  bring  to  their  teaching  not  only  sound 
and  exact  knowledge  bu^  also  a  broad  culture,  and  a  rich 
and  sympathetic  personality,  then  the  relation  of  profes- 
sor and  student  will  cease  to  be  that  of  taskmaster  and 
fag,  and  college  government  will  become  self-govern- 
ment. 

A  large  majority  of  those  who  enter  college  enter  with 
the  determination  to  behave  well  and  to  study,  and  if  put 
actively  to  work  at  once  and  held  to  it  by  the  magnetism 
of  good  teaching,  will  have  neither  time  nor  temptation 
to  abandon  this  first  intention.  Even  the  rawest  fresh- 
man, while  he  can  in  no  fashion  define  good  teaching, 
knows  it  and  responds  to  it  whett  he  receives  it.  It  is  a 
pitiful  thing  to  have  the  enthusiasm  of  a  student  killed  by 
poor  teaching. 

*  Educational  Review,  9:    10. 


104  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  ''Personal  Touch"  in  College  Government 
Individual  Personal  Work  of  the  Teachers. —  The 
strongest  influence  for  good  that  can  come  into  the  Hfe 
of  the  young  man  or  woman  at  college  is  the  personality 
of  the  teacher.  If  any  professor  comes  to  feel  that  he 
need  have  no  personal  interest  in  his  students  outside 
the  class  room,  and  none  there  beyond  the  lesson  work, 
he  thereby  loses  fitness  to  be  a  professor.  Each  man 
and  woman  in  the  teaching  body  of  a  college  must  feel  a 
close  personal  interest  in  both  the  intramural  and  ex- 
tramural welfare  of  every  student  in  the  institution. 

The  personal  value  of  the  professor,  his  sympathetic 
interest  in  his  pupils  not  merely  as  learners  but  as  men 
and  women,  must  make  itself  felt  as  a  living  presence  in 
the  class  room,  in  one  or  more  of  the  organizations  of  the 
college,  and  in  his  own  home,  to  enter  which  for  help 
and  counsel,  his  students  should  feel  always  welcome. 
The  professor  who  has  at  heart  the  character  growth 
of  a  student,  rather  than  his  daily  capacity  to  receive  a 
few  facts,  will  miss  no  opportunity  for  kindly  watchful- 
ness, or  helpful  sympathy,  or  directing  word.  The 
formulae  of  mathematics, .  the  symbols  of  chemistry, 
and  the  notation  of  logic  may  be,  most  likely  will  be,  for- 
gotten, but  the  way  in  which  the  teacher  presents  them, 
the  transfusion  of  his  personality  through  them  into  the 
mind  and  heart  of  the  pupil,  these  are  the  things  that 
abide,  along  with  the  memory  of  the  kind  word,  the 
thoughtful  act,  the  example  of  dignity  and  manliness. 

Whether  in  all  cases  it  is  well  to  set  apart  certain  mem- 
bers of  the  Faculty  as  "  advisers  "  or  counselors,  as  is 
done  at  some  universities,  is  open  to  question.  ,  It  does  not 
seem  wise  to  commit  to  a  few  men's  doing  what  is  equally 
the  business  of  all 


THE  COLLEGE  105 

The  Reception  of  New  Students. —  As  teaching  power 
and  personaHty  stand  first  in  point  of  importance  among 
the  factors  that  make  for  good  order  in  the  college,  so 
the  welcome  which  the  college  gives  to  the  entering 
student  stands  first  in  time. 

From  the  moment  the  student,  fresh  from  home,  steps 
off  the  train  to  find  new  duties  among  strangers,  he 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  the  college  is  for  him,  to  do 
him  service,  to  recognize  his  manhood,  and  to  socialize 
his  energies.  To  no  student  must  the  college  come,  to 
stand  as  an  impersonal  and  indifferent  corporation. 

No  Published  Rules. —  Precisely  the  same  reasons 
given  on  an  earlier  page  against  announcing  a  set  of  rules 
or  regulations  in  the  elementary  school  hold  against  doing 
so  in  a  college.  Everybody  competent  to  enter  college 
at  all  knows  how  to  behave  well  and  should  be  credited 
with  the  purpose  to  do  so.  Surely  a  college  student  has 
the  same  right  as  a  prisoner  at  the  bar,  to  be  considered 
innocent  until  found  guilty;  but  to  receive  almost  at  th^ 
very  moment  of  his  entrance  a  printed  set  of  iron-clad 
rules  to  which  he  is  required  to  promise  adherence  is  to 
receive  a  gratuitous  hint  that  his  motives  are  subject  to 
suspicion  at  the  outset.  .. 

President  Draper  states  the  case  clearly  and  correctly 
when  he  writes :  "  I  would  permit  the  largest  freedom 
of  individual  action,  on  the  assumption  that  it  will  be  in 
legitimate  bounds.''  When  the  responsibility  for  good 
behavior  is  thrown  upon  the  student  he  is  more  apt  to 
conduct  himself  properly  than  if  he  feels  that  he  can 
take  advantage  of  the  tradition  that  it  is  always  fair,  if 
not  commendable,  to  circumvent  the  regulations  and  out- 
wit those  whose  business  it  is  to  enforce  them.  If  the 
incoming  student  is  met  with  a  genuine  cordiality,  an 


Io6  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

honest  and  candid  welcome,  and  a  tacit  assumption  that 
he  is  a  gentleman  and  will  so  comport  himself  the  odds 
are  strongly  against  his  ever  making  much  trouble  for 
the  college. 

The  Social  Life  of  the  College. —  The  most  thought- 
ful consideration  should  be  given  by  the  college  authori- 
ties from  trustees  to  the  humblest  tutor,  to  the  social  life 
of  the  students,  and  as  thorough  and  adequate  provision 
should  be  made  for  it  as  for  the  teaching  of  biology  or 
of  mathematics.  The  social  impulses  are  inherent  and 
strong,  and  if  right  direction  be  given  to  them  and  proper 
opportunities  be  afforded  for  their  wholesome  outworking 
they  can  be  made  most  helpful  factors  in  the  maintenance 
of  order.  In  the  first  place,  if  the  college  is  coeduca- 
tional, the  young  men  and  young  women  should  be  per- 
mitted to  meet  upon  the  same  footing  and  in  the  same 
way  that  young  men  and  young  women  who  have  had 
a  sane  and  simple  bringing  up  meet  anywhere.  There 
is  no  stronger  influence  for  good  order  than  that  grow- 
ing out  of  the  healthy  intellectual  comradeship  of  the 
two  sexes  meeting  unaffectedly  in  the  regular  exercises 
of  the  college.  Such  mingling,  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  sort  of  teaching  which  puts  emphasis  upon  intellectual 
achievement,  is  sure  to  clear  the  young  mind  of  mere  sen- 
timentality, and  establish  in  each  sex  a  sound  respect  for 
the  other,  a  respect  leading  inevitably  to  an  increase  of 
self-respect  and  consequent  correct  behavior. 

Social  Gatherings. —  There  should  be  many  gatherings 
during  the  session  in  a  well-governed  college  in  which 
students  and  faculty  should  meet  in  a  purely  social  way. 

These  meetings,  to  be  most  fruitful  of  mutual  helpful- 
ness, should  not  always  be  in  the  form  of  set,  quasi- 
official  receptions.     Such   receptions  are  useful,  but   do 


THE  COLLEGE  I07 

not  have  the  personal  quahty  that  marks  the  hospitaHty 
extended  to  fewer  pupils  at  a  time  by  president  and  pro- 
fessors in  their  own  homes.  It  is  the  personal  touch  that 
counts  in  any  psychic  constructive  work,  and,  besides,  the 
students  have  a  fundamental  right  to  the  training  and 
culture  which  only  the  best  social  environment  can  give. 
Student  Organizations 

Clubs. —  The  social  impulses  of  the  student  body  may 
work  out  healthily  and  good  order  be  promoted  through 
various  well-organized  clubs.  A  few  of  these  clubs  may 
be  purely  social,  as  college  fraternities  are  when  at  their 
best,  but  it  is  better  if  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  used 
as  a  means  of  intellectual  self-culture.  The  college  should 
give  every  encouragement  to  the  organization  and  growth 
of  the  "  Chemical  Club,"  or  the  "  Classical  Club/'  or  the 
"  Good  English  Club."  Such  clubs  bring  together  stu- 
dents having  important  interests  in  common,  intensify 
these  interests,  and  emphasize  and  make  popular  the  cul- 
ture side  of  study.  In  many  instances  if  members  of  the 
faculty  are  present  the  club  meetings  will  be  of  the  nature 
of  a  seminar. 

Religious  Associations. —  The  religious  growth  which 
is  so  essential  to  a  proper  symmetry  of  character  is  as 
much  the  concern  of  the  college  as  the  physical  or  intel- 
lectual. Almost  all  the  non-state  institutions  of  collegiate 
rank  in  this  country  were  organized  with  the  purpose 
of  making  this  fact  prominent  in  their  work.  Although 
the  state  colleges  and  universities  of  later  growth  usually 
refrain  from  giving  prominence  to  the  religious  influence, 
as  distinct  from  moral,  from  fear  of  offending  sectarians, 
yet  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  religious  needs  of 
the  student  is  coming  to  be  generally  recognized.  In  the 
last  dozen  years  various  organizations  have  made  them- 


lo8  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

selves  felt  upon  the  lives  and  characters  of  the  students 
in  a  most  helpful  way.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  and  that  of  the  young  women,  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  and  its  men's 
auxiliary,  have  proved  most  beneficial  in  every  institution 
where  the  authorities  have  given  them  encouragement  and 
room  to  grow. 

In  some  colleges  and  universities,  even  those  of  non- 
sectarian  founding,  a  noon-day  or  vesper  prayer  meeting, 
voluntarily  organized  and  kept  up  by  the  students,  is  a 
constant  source  of  help  and  growth. 

All  such  associations  should  have  the  heartiest  recogni- 
tion and  encouragement  from  college  authorities  and 
parents;  but  their  organizing  and  directing  force  should 
come  spontaneously  from  the  student  body. 

The  social  and  ethical  practices  of  the  college  should 
in  all  respects  be  superior  to  those  of  the  average  homes 
represented  by  its  students.  That  this  is  not  now  true 
is  a  fact  to  be  deplored  and  remedied. 

Fraternities.^ —  Greek  letter  fraternities,  like  other 
phases  of  student  activity,  may  be  used  for  good  or  may 
become  sources  of  harm.  So  long  as  these  organizations 
keep  out  of  "  college  politics  "  and  hold  steadily  to  their 
fundamental  purposes  of  good  comradeship  and  social 
hdpfulness  their  presence  should  be  welcome  in  any  col- 
lege. It  sometimes  happens  that  fraternity  men  can 
reach  and  correct  more  effectively  than  can  the  college 
authorities  wrong  influences  that  may  be  at  work  in  the 
life  of  a  fellow-member. 

In  many  places,  the  fraternities  have  erected  beautiful 
buildings,  made  safe  homes  for  students^  and  brought  into 

*  Baird's    "American    College    Fraternities";    Report    of   National    Educa- 
tional   Association,    1890:707;    Thwing,    "College    Administration." 


THE  COLLEGE  1 09 

college  life  a  charm  and  tradition  that  have  been  among 
the  strongest  of  constructive  influences. 

Athletics. —  Much  has  been  said,  pro  and  con,  in  the 
last  decade,  on  athletics  in  colleges.  The  subject  would 
be  less  obscured  and  differences  of  opinion  less  sharp,  if 
it  were  generally  understood  that  the  matter  under  dis- 
cussion is  really  intercollegiate  competitive  athletics,  and 
not  at  all  the  general  question  of  athletics.  There  is  no 
one  who  does  not  believe  heartily  in  the  modern  doctrine 
that  the  college  is  concerned  with  the  physical  education 
of  its  students  as  well  as  with  their  intellectual  and  moral. 
But  there  are  many,  and  the  number  seems  to  be  increas- 
ing, who  do  not  believe  that  intercollegiate  athletic  con- 
tests have  anything  to  do  with  a  proper  physical  educa- 
tion. 

The  student,  on  entering  college,  should  be  examined  as 
to  his  physical  condition  and  needs,  and  be  assigned  to 
prescribed  work  in  the  gymnasium.  But  it  has  been 
found  that  men  and  women  as  well  as  boys  and  girls  need 
outdoor,  spontaneous  exercise,  and  therefore  college 
students  should  be  encouraged  to  spend  some  time  every 
day  in  walking,  riding,  rowing,  bicycling,  or  in  play  of 
some  sort  on  the  athletic  field. 

If  all  the  best  that  has  been  said  in  favor  of  competi- 
tive athletics  be  granted  as  valid  so  far  as  it  applies  tQ 
the  individual  student,  the  objection  is  not  thereby  an- 
swered that  the  benefit  reaches  but  very  few  of  the  whole 
number  of  students,  and  these  usually  are  least  in  need 
of  the  physical  benefits  supposed  to  accrue  from  the 
training. 

If  the  plea  be  allowed  that  athletics  develop  the  ethical 
nature,^  the  same  objection,  that  not  many  are  called  and 

*"The  Ethical  Function  of  Football,"  N.  Am.   Rev.,  173:  627. 


I  lo  ORGAN IZ A  TION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

very  few  are  chosen,  still  holds  as  to  individuals ;  and  the 
further  answer  may  be  made  that  the  best  of  college  spirit 
and  loyalty  can  be  as  well  cultivated  by  other  forms  of 
intercollegiate  rivalries  that  are  more  akin  to  the  intel- 
lectual ideals  for  which  colleges  are  supposed  to  stand. 
"'  The  Negative  Side  of  Modern  Athletics  "  has  been  no 
more  forcibly  presented  than  in  the  following  terse  para- 
graphs :  ^ 

''  Sport  is  the  one  thing  in  college  life  which  at  the  pres- 
ent time  awakens  enthusiasm  outside,  and  it  is  impossible 
that  this  fact  should  be  without  effect.     .     .     . 

By  actions  .  .  .  the  public,  and  the  educated  and 
cultivated  portion  of  the  public  in  particular,  say  to  the 
undergraduate  that  athletics  are  of  more  consequence  than 
anything  else  in  a  college  career.  It  does  not  seem  possi- 
ble that  under  such  a  state  of  things  the  student's  sense 
of  values  can  escape  distortion.  .  .  . 
.  .  .  but  the  college  on  the  field  of  sports  touches 
nobody  as  an  intellectual  ideal;  in  that  atmosphere  it  does 
not  shine  forth  as  an  alma  mater  of  mental  nourishment 
or  of  higher  aspirations.     .     .     . 

The  indifference  of  people  in  general  to  intellectual 
concerns  and  their  greed  for  amusement  are  thus  burned 
into  boys  at  the  most  impressionable  period  of  Hfe,  and 
that,  too,  under  the  sanction  of  the  very  universities  of 
which  the  highest  function  should  be  that  of  nourishing 
the  intellectual  ideal."  ^ 

The  Assembly  as  a  Means  of  Control 

The  daily  exercises  in  the  chapel  of  the  college  should 
be  more  than  merely  perfunctory  devotional  services ;  in- 

*  Bates,  Forum,   31:   287   et  seq.;  N.  Y.   Independent,   57:   605. 
2  For   further  discussion  see   Forum   16:   634,   32:    309;   Harper's  Monthly 
loi:  207;  Popular  Science  Monthly  45:  721;  Ed.  Rev.  2:  453,  9:  100. 


THE  COLLEGE  HI 

deed,  in  some  state  institutions  religious  services  are  pro- 
hibited by  statute. 

Attendance  at  chapel  should  not  be  compulsory;  abso- 
lute freedom  to  attend  or  to  stay  away  should  be  accorded 
to  each  student.  But  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  exercises  so  interesting  and  so  valuable  that 
none  shall  elect  to  stay  away  from  them.  All  that  was 
said  on  pp.  49-51  about  the  daily  opening  exercises  of  the 
elementary  school  applies  even  more  strongly  to  those  of 
the  college.  The  college  can  not  afford  to  spend  less  than 
a  half  hour  upon  the  program  of  chapel  exercises,  and 
more  time  will  often  be  needed. 

Music. —  There  should  always  be  music;  if  the  value 
of  it  for  culture  and  good  government  were  rightly  appre- 
ciated no  college  would  be  without  an  organist  and  a  choir 
leader.  There  should  be  a  choir  made  up  of  students, 
and  there  should  also  be  much  congregational  singing. 

Scripture  Reading  and  Prayer. —  Unless  forbidden  by 
state  statute.  Scripture  reading  and  prayer  should  form 
an  essential  part  of  the  daily  general  program  of  the,  col- 
lege. The  Hebrew  and  Christian  Scriptures  are  so  full 
of  the  best  ethical  and  religious  teaching  that  it  is  very 
ea^y  to  select  fruitful  passages  for  devotional  exercises, 
and  yet  avoid  giving  offense  to  the  most  sensitive  sec- 
tarianism. 

It  seems  a  mere  truism  to  say  that  whenever  Scripture 
is  read  and  prayer  offered  in  public,  the  service  should  be 
done  with  heartiness,  sincerity,  and  spiritual  insight  into 
the  needs  of  those  who  hear.  These  are  especially 
needed  in  college  devotional  services. 

Other  Exercises. —  The  daily  gathering  together  of 
the  student  body  and  the  faculty  affords  opportunity  for 
educational  influences  that  can  not  be  brought  to  bear  so 


112  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

well  at  any  other  time.  Here  should  be  given  simple, 
helpful  talks  by  president  and  faculty  upon  manners  and 
conduct  (the  college  student  never  gets  too  old  to  need 
such  talks)  ;  upon  the  living  themes  of  the  day,  the  dis- 
cussion of  which  will  make  the  students  strongly  realize 
that  they  are  part  of  the  great  human  current ;  upon  scien- 
tific, historic,  or  philosophic  matters,  some  knowledge  of 
which  must  be  part  of  the  acquirements  of  every  educated 
man,  no  difference  what  may  be  his  special  line  of  study ; 
upon  the  duty  and  opportunity  of  young  men  and  women 
to  do  the  world's  work  and  to  enjoy  the  doing.  In  mak- 
ing up  a  faculty,  the  authorities  of  the  college  should  get 
men  and  women  who  can  talk  to  an  audience,  simply, 
clearly,  fluently ;  there  should  be  no  place  in  a  college  class 
room  or  on  a  college  platform  for  what  has  been  well 
named  "  dumb  scholarship.'* 

Into  this  sort  of  service  may  be  pressed  also  whoever 
among  the  visitors  to  the  college  are  able  to  help.  From 
these  may  occasionally  be  had  a  bit  of  choice  music,  a 
narrative  of  personal  experience,  words  of  counsel,  a  dis- 
cussion of  current  topics,  some  presentation  of  the  beau- 
tiful, the  edifying,  or  the  amusing,  that  shall  spice  the  . 
whole  day's  work  for  every  student.  In  ways  like  tlffese 
the  daily  exercises  in  the  college  chapel  or  auditorium 
can  be  made  so  valuable  to  the  students  that  none  shall 
choose  to  stay  away. 

But  in  addition  to  these  means  of  general  culture  and 
growth,  to  be  availed  of  almost  every  day,  there  must  be 
regular  lecture  courses,  high-class  concerts,  dramatic  en- 
tertainments (these  often  given  by  the  students  them- 
selves), all  with  the  purpose  of  helping  the  students  to 
the  richest  life,  and  making  wholesome  appeals  to  the 
varied  interests  of  youth. 


THE  COLLEGE  II3 

Student  Cooperation  in  College  Govern\ment 

Next  to  the  personal  force  of  the  teacher,  as  an  influ- 
ence on  character  and  its  manifestation  in  behavior,  is  the 
personahty  of  fellow  students.  In  some  cases  the  latter 
influence  may  even  be  the  stronger  of  the  two. 

It  is  possible  so  to  reverse  traditional  college  practices 
that  the  upper-class  men  shall  become  the  guides  and 
counselors  of  the  freshmen  hazing,  in  its  older  and 
rougher  forms,  at  least,  shall  be  obsolete ;  class  "  rushes  '' 
shall  disappear,  and  superior  intelligence  and  experience 
shall  be  brought  to  do  in  every  way  the  same  sort  of 
service  in  the  college  that  they  are  expected  to  do  among 
ladies  and  gentlemen  who  are  not  in  college. 

The  more  mature  and  thoughtful  students,  working  in 
harmony  with  the  faculty,  can  soon  create  an  atmosphere 
fatal  to  silly  (or  worse)  pranks,  to  the  vices  that  eat  into 
student  life,  to  cheating  and  "  faking  "  in  recitations  and 
examinations,  in  short,  to  all  the  things  that  so  often 
devitalize  the  higher  influences  of  a  college  and  force  the 
professors  into  police  duty.  When  a  student  discovers 
that  lawless  conduct  and  dishonest  practices  in  the  class- 
room are  under  the  ban  of  any  considerable  number  of 
his  fellows  he  soon  changes  his  ways.  Ostracism  is  more 
potent  than  rules  and  regulations  and  faculty  Boards  of 
Discipline. 

Such  student  cooperation  as  is  here  indicated,  co- 
operation in  spirit  and  in  purpose,  is  the  only  sort  that 
counts.  The  final  authority,  in  matters  of  discipline,  must 
vest  in  the  faculty,  and  any  such  complex  machinery  as 
student  "  senates "  of  "  councils,''  designed  to  divide 
authority  and  responsibility  with  the  faculty,  is  apt  to 
break  down  when  put  to  work.  The  few  cases  in  which 
such  machinery  has  been  somewhat  effective  only  serve 

Roark's  Econ. — 8  • 


114  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

to  show  what  a  quantity  of  energy  must  be  put  into  the 
machine  in  proportion  to  the  effective  work  done.^  In 
one  respect,  indeed,  the  organization  of  legislative  or 
executive  bodies  among  the  students  serves  to  emphasize 
the  very  thing  which  it  is  best  to  keep  in  the  background, 
the  occasional  need  of  discipline  and  government  admin- 
istered from  without.  Laws  and  the  machinery  of  their 
execution,  whether  inside  or  outside  the  college,  are  essen- 
tially for  the  weak  and  erratic,  for  those  who  can  not 
govern  themselves  from  within.  The  aim  of  college  gov- 
ernment should  be  to  make  the  student  body  a  self-gov- 
erning  community. 

Recalcitrant  Cases 

But  after  all  the  means  have  been  used  for  'arousing 
the  higher  interests  of  students,  for  appealing  to  their 
social  instincts,  for  so  occupying  their  time  that  misuse 
of  it  will  be  difficult,  for  building  a  helpful  public  senti- 
ment, there  will  still  remain  some  "  irreducible  material,'' 
and  sharper  and  more  direct  methods  become  necessary. 

"  Office  Talks." —  When  a  college  student  shows  a 
marked  tendency  to  resist  the  better  influences  around 
him  and  begins  to  "  go  wrong,"  whether  the  going  wrong 
affects  himself  mainly  or  the  college  also,  he  should  be 
quietly  called  in  for  a  private  talk  with  the  president. 
The  president  must,  it  is  evident,  be  the  sort  of  man  who 
can  manage  that  sort  of  thing  with  skill  and  decision,  and 
the  result  of  the  talk  should  be  immediately  visible  in  the 
conduct  of  the  pupil. 

Only  in  the  most  flagrant  cases  of  misconduct  need  the 
faculty  be  called  together  for  the  disciplining  of  a  student. 
There  is  nothing,  ordinarily,  which  the  faculty  as  a  body 

'^  Consult  Educational  Review,  3:  162;  8:  442;  13:  412;  also  Rep.  ot 
Nat.   Ed.   Assoc,   1889:    539;    1890:   685. 


THE  COLLEGE  1 15 

could  do  with  a  refractory  case  which  might  not  be  much 
better  and  more  effectively  done  by  the  president  alone. 

Notice  to  Parents. —  If  a  student  who  is  under  age,  or 
but  little  over,  manages  to  get  himself  called  up  a  second 
time,  kindly  and  courteous  notice  of  his  shortcomings 
should  be  sent  to  his  parents  or  guardian.  The  efforts 
of  the  college  authorities  to  make  matters  straight  ought 
to  be  reinforced  by  the  home,  and  a  letter  from  parents 
to  the  son  or  daughter  just  beginning  to  step  aside  from 
the  right  way  is  very  effective.  But  even  if  the  college 
secures  no  aid  from  the  home  in  giving  correction,  as 
sometimes  happens,  yet  the  parents  have  a  right  to  know 
the  facts  in  any  case  involving  the  behavior  of  son  or 
daughter. 

Suspension. —  Suspension  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time 
from  all  college  privileges  must  be  visited  upon  the  stu- 
dent who  persists  in  neglect  of  duty  or  disturbs  the  peace 
of  the  college.  The  suspension  must  be  absolute,  leaving 
no  chance  for  the  culprit  to  hang  around  the  college  and 
annoy  or  corrupt  the  orderly  or  the  weak.  Immediate 
notice  of  suspension  should  be  sent  to  the  parents  of  the 
student. 

Expulsion. —  Expulsion  is  necessary  sometimes  as  a 
last  resort,  when  the  student's  ways  become  plainly  past 
mending  by  any  of  the  college  influences,  and  his  presence 
becomes  a  constant  menace  to  good  order.  It  is  always 
best  that  the  expulsion  should  be  quietly  and  privately 
effected;  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  a  public  expulsion 
ever  had  other  than  an  ill  effect  upon  the  student  body. 
Expulsion  is  to  the  college  what  capital  punishment  is  to 
the  state,  and  it  should  be  as  quietly  effected ;  public  ex- 
pulsion is  no  more  defensible  than  public  hanging.  Public 
punishment  makes  a  hero  or  a  martyr  of  the  student. 


Il6  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

D.  Closing  the  Session. 

The  same  principles  of  economy  are  to  govern  in  the 
closing  weeks  of  the  college  as  in  those  of  the  lower 
schools.  Interest  must  be  sustained  to  the  last  and  effort 
and  accomplishment  must  not  flag.  The  last  week  of  the 
session  should  be  crowded  with  such  features  of  interest, 
besides  the  commencement  day  exercises,  as  will  attract 
visitors,  gratify  all  who  are  interested  in  the  growth  of 
the  true  educational  ideal,  and  draw  them  into  a  closer 
loyalty  to  the  college. 

The  closing  exercises  may  consist  in  part  of  an  exhibit 
of  the  material  resources  of  the  institution  and  of  the 
power  and  training  which  its  graduates  have  secured,  and 
in  part  of  one  or  more  addresses  which  shall  review  the 
progress  of  education  or  of  learning,  in  general  and  in 
that  college,  and  forecast  the  next  movements  forward. 

A  College  Exposition. —  A  college  will  always  find  it 
worth  while  to  show  to  the  public,  in  a  proper  and  digni- 
fied way,  its  material  resources.  This  it  should  be  ready 
to  do  at  any  time,  but  especially  at  commencement,  when 
the  number  of  visitors  is  large.  Along  with  the  opening 
of  the  class  rooms,  libraries,  and  laboratories,  for  inspec- 
tion, should  go  also  the  exposition  of  such  work  of  the 
students  as  has  been  given  concrete  expression.  (Com- 
pare p.  58.) 

Graduates'  Day. —  While  there  is  a  growing  tendency 
strongly  to  modify  the  old  form  of  commencement  exer- 
cises,^ yet  neither  the  general  nor  the  educational  public 
will  allow  the  traditional  characteristics  of  commence- 
ment to  become  wholly  obsolete.  Certainly  the  people 
outside  the  college,  who  give  it  in  one  way  or  another  its 
financial  and  moral  support,  have  a  right  to  an  oppor- 

^  Ed.  Rev.  2:  79;  9:  427. 


THE  COLLEGE  W; 

tunity  to  judge  the  immediate  results  of  the  work  the  col- 
lege does.  Somewhat  of  the  value  of  the  college  should 
appear  in  the  commencement  work  of  its  graduates. 

To  say,  as  one  writer  does,  that  "  the  exercises  of  the 
day,  as  in  general  carried  out,  no  longer  represent 
progress  in  educational  affairs  '' ;  that  "  immature  stu- 
dents, with  little  or  no  practice  in  public  speaking,  are 
expected  to  do  what  would  appall  an  older  and  more  ex- 
perienced speaker "  merely  throws  the  deficiencies  of 
much  of  college  work  into  clearer  relief.  The  speeches  of 
the  graduates,  in  subject-matter  and  delivery,  ought  to 
"  represent  progress  in  educational  affairs,"  and  "  prac- 
tice in  public  speaking ''  is,  surely,  one  of  the  things  a 
college  is  supposed  to  give  its  students  constantly  through- 
out their  four  years'  stay.  If  a  student  can  not  put  some 
part  of  what  he  has  gained  in  four  years,  in  knowledge 
and  power,  into  good,  clear  English,  and  deliver  it  with 
force  and  sincerity  to  a  sympathetic  audience,  then  it  must 
be  said  it  is  not  the  student  commencement  speaker  that 
ought  to  be  abolished ! 

But  the  demand  that  the  graduates  shall  be  given  a 
day  to  themselves  and  their  audiences  is  reasonable, 
though  "  graduates'  day  "  should  be  looked  upon  as  no 
whit  less  important  than  commencement  day  itself.  One 
important  result  of  exercises  of  a  high  grade  of  excellence 
on  graduates'  day,  a  result  which  the  college  ought  gladly 
to  strive  to  intensify,  is  the  inspiration  and  stimulus  given 
to  the  undergraduates  and  to  the  young  men  and  women, 
not  yet  matriculates  of  the  college,  who  make  up  so  large 
a  part  of  a  commencement  audience.  They  should  be 
made  to  feel  the  spur  of  ambition,  and  be  quickened  with 
a  desire  to  be  among  those  who  live  the  higher  life  of 
thought  and  action. 


Il8  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Commencement  Day. —  The  last  day  of  the  closing 
session  or  term,  should  be  devoted  to  the  bestowal  of  de- 
grees and  the  presentation  of  diplomas,  to  such  other  offi- 
cial functions  as  may  be  customary,  and  especially  to  the 
discussion  before  the  public  of  some  living  educational 
problem.  The  general  public  rarely  has  or  uses  an  oppor- 
tunity to  hear  an  expression  of  expert  opinion  or  experi- 
ence on  educational  themes.  The  college  commencement, 
rightly  looked  upon  as  a  popular  rather  than  as  a  pro- 
fessional event,  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  of  pre- 
senting to  an  intelligent  but  non-professional  audience  the 
present  issues  of  education. 

The  whole  plan  and  purpose  of  the  closing  days  of  col- 
lege must  be  to  continue  and  distinctly  to  emphasize  the 
year-long  and  constant  function  of  the  college  as  a  source 
and  center  of  educational  power,  revealing  the  values  of 
the  intellectual,  the  spiritual,  and  the  social  life  as  against 
a  gross  and  corroding  materialism. 

(4)  THE  TEACHERS'  TRAINING  SCHOOL 

A.     Equipment. 
(a)    Grounds  and  Buildings 

The  academic  work  of  the  teachers'  training  school 
does  not  require  either  buildings  or  grounds  different 
in  character  from  those  adapted  to  the  college. 

Model  School  and  Practice  School  Buildings. —  The 
professional  work  of  the  training  school,  however,  re- 
quires model  schools  and  practice  schools  for  illustrative 
purposes,  and  the  buildings  in  which  these  are  housed 
should  be  separate  from  other  buildings  and  planned 
for  their  own  specific  uses.  There  should  be  buildings 
for  city  graded  school  work  and  others  for  rural  school 
work,  and  each  kind  should  be  a  model  for  its  purpose. 


THE  TEACHERS'  TRAINING  SCHOOL  119 

showing  the  very  latest  and  best  adaptation  of  structure 
to  school  use,  and  at  the  same  time  illustrating  how 
material,  construction,  and  equipment  may  be  made  to 
conform  to  the  requirements  of  climate  and  other  local 
conditions,  all  at  a  cost  within  the  reach  of  the  urban  and 
rural  communities  which  the  training  school  serves.  The 
buildings  for  the  model  and  the  practice  rural  school 
will  in  most  cases,  naturally,  be  in  the  country ;  and  model 
roads  leading  from  the  town  to  these  buildings  would  be 
an  excellent,  and  usually  much  needed,  object  lesson. 
There  should  also  be  rooms  and  grounds  for  the  illustra- 
tion of  the  value  of  manual  training  and  school  gardening, 
(b)   Furniture  and  Apparatus 

For  the  academic  work  of  the  teachers'  training  school 
the  same  kind  of  furniture  and  apparatus  will  be  needed 
as  in  the  college;  for  the  best  part  of  the  distinctively 
professional  work  the  training  school  will  need  peda- 
gogical museums  and  laboratories. 

Pedagogical  Museums. —  Museums  of  pedagogy  are 
as  indispensable  to  the  right  study  of  the  history,  the 
evolution,  and  the  current  practice  of  education  as  muse- 
ums of  geology  and  biology  are  to  the  intelligent  study 
of  those  sciences. 

The  museums  of  educational  history  should  show  (i) 
types  of  school  furniture  from  the  earliest  educational 
epochs  to  the  present,  (2)  samples  of  school  apparatus, 
(3)  samples  of  text-books  in  all  the  subjects  of  the  com- 
mon schools  and  high  schools,  and  (4)  pictures  of  great 
educators,  of  apparatus  of  which  actual  samples  are  not 
obtainable,  and  especially  of  school  houses,  grounds,  and 
decorations.  Many  of  these  pictures  may  be  in  the 
form  of  lantern  slides  for  use  in  lectures.  The  model 
school  is  also  a  museum,  and  in  it  the  student  should  find 


120  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  observation  and  study  all  that  is  best  in  modern  edu- 
cational practice.  The  equipment  must  be  the  best,  and 
the  teaching  should  all  be  done  by  experts  in  a  way  to  illus- 
trate the  latest  conclusions  of  pedagogical  science.  It  will 
usually  be  found  advisable  to  collect  a  tuition  fee  in  the 
model  school,  in  order  to  keep  the  number  of  pupils  with- 
in proper  limits,  and  to  divide  the  attendance  with  the 
practice  school.  Only  one  model  school  of  each  kind  — 
urban  and  rural  —  is  needed. 

Pedagogical  Laboratories. —  Practice  schools  are,  in 
the  truest  sense,  pedagogical  laboratories  and  if  teaching 
is  ever  to  become  a  science  it  must  be  largely  by  means 
of  such  laboratories.  They  are  as  necessary  to  the  train- 
ing of  the  teacher  and  to  the  scientific  study  of  education 
as  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  are  to  the  training 
of  the  physicist  and  chemist,  and  to  the  scientific  study  of 
physics  and  chemistry. 

For  the  proper  work  of  a  large  teachers'  training 
school,  several  practice  schools  of  each  kind  —  urban  and 
rural  —  will  be  necessary.  They  should  be  used  not 
only  for  testing  and  training  the  pupil-teacher,  but  also 
for  "  trying  out "  new  educational  theories  and  retesting 
old  ones.  It  may  be  said  here  with  emphasis  that  if  a 
pupil-teacher  fails  in  the  practice  school  to  come  up  to 
a  certain  high  standard  of  fitness  and  skill  he  should  not 
he  granted  a  professional  diploma  or  certificate,  no  matter 
how  high  his  standing  may  he  in  the  academic  work. 
Unfortunately,  few  state  normal  schools  in  this  country 
observe  this  rule. 

Likewise,  no  theory  of  teaching  should  be  passed  on 
into  the  model  school  or  published  under  the  authority 
of  the  training  school,  unless  it  gives  good  results  upon 
trial  in  the  practice  school. 


THE  TEACHERS'  TRAINING  SCHOOL  121 

Some  strong  objections  have  been  urged  against  prac- 
tice schools,  as  being  too  suggestive  of  the  cHnical  practice 
of  vivisection.  The  plea  is  made  that  children  are  too 
precious  and  costly  to  be  used  as  "  raw  material "  upon 
which  to  test  either  new  teachers  or  new  theories.  The 
best  answer  that  can  be  made  to  the  objectors  is  that 
every  year  thousands  of  young  people  who  have  never 
spent  a  day  in  a  normal  school  practice  upon  the  innocents 
without  guidance  or  direction,  and  it  is  far  better  for  the 
thousands  of  children  that  a  few  hundreds  should  be  ex- 
perimented upon  under  the  most  favorable  material  con- 
ditions and  under  expert,  sympathetic  direction. 

B.    Organization  and  Administration. 

All  that  has  been  said  of  the  college  under  this  head 
applies  with  equal  force  to  the  teachers'  training  school. 

Headquarters  for  Educational  Associations. —  The 
training  school  needs  to  keep  in  closer  touch  with  the 
teachers  and  officials  of  the  elementary  schools  throughout 
the  state,  than  does  the  college.  To  this  end  it  would 
be  well  to  make  the  training  school  the  headquarters  of 
educational  meetings  of  all  kinds,  placing  at  the  service 
of  state  and  local  associations  the  assembly  room,  and 
rooms  for  the  use  of  officers  throughout  the  year. 

Educational  Bulletins. —  The  state  training  school 
should,  in  cooperation  with  the  office  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent, be  active  in  sending  out  to  teachers  and  school 
officials  all  over  the  state,  bulletins  embodying  the  results 
of  educational  experiments,  suggestions  of  other  experi- 
ments to  be  made  by  teachers,  statistics  of  education,  in- 
terpretations of  the  school  laws,  and  such  other  matter 
as  would  be  of  interest  and  value  to  the  teacher  at  work. 


11.    ORGANIZATION    AND    ADMINISTRATION 
OF    SCHOOL    SYSTEMS 

Some  of  the  gravest  problems  that  are  presented  to  the 
educational  economist  to-day  are  those  involved  in  organ- 
izing into  a  system  and  administering,  without  waste,  the 
agencies  of  formal  education,  the  schools  of  a  community, 
be  it  state  or  city.  Several  conditions,  inherent  in  our 
forms  of  government  and  political  methods,  increase  the 
difficulties  of  these  problems.  Money  must  be  had  from 
taxpayers  who  are  often  indifferent  and  sometimes  hostile 
to,  public  education  when  it  makes  demands  upon  their 
own  pockets.  Laws  governing  both  the  external  and  in- 
ternal organization  of  school  systems  must  be  made  by 
men  who  often  know  little  and  care  less  about  the  public 
schools  as  agencies  of  education.  And  the  immediate 
administration  of  the  schools  is  too  frequently  placed  in 
the  hands  of  persons  who  are  either  indifferent  to  their 
responsibilities  or  undertake  them  in  order  to  advance 
their  own  particular  interests. 

However,  in  spite  of  these  things  there  is  going  on  a 
gradual  educational  uplift  and  the  children  and  youth 
are  coming  into  their  own ;  but  it  is  still  pathetically  true 
that  they  do  not  get  adequate  returns  from  the  money 
spent  for  them,  and  for  the  time  they  spend. 

To  show  how  good  results  have  been  reached  and  to 
suggest  some  other  methods  of  practical  economy,  are  the 
objects  of  the  following  pages. 

122 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  123 

(i)    ORGANIZATION  AND   INTERRELATION  OF 

SCHOOL  UNITS 

A.  The  State  System. 

(a)  The  Rural  Elementary  SchooP 

However  good  the  schools  of  a  state  may  be,  individ- 
ually, there  is  no  "  system  "  unless  the  several  schools  of 
like  grade  are  organized  upon  a  common  plan  and  all 
schools  owing  their  existence  to  state  legislation  are 
brought  into  relationship  to  one  another  in  work  and 
results. 

The  first  question  to  be  answered  in  the  attempt  to  con- 
struct a  state  system  of  schools  is  that  of  maintenance,  or 
financial  support;  and  the  second  is  the  interrelation  of 
schools  into  an  organic  system. 

Maintenance  ^ 
Sources  of  School  Revenues. —  Although  some  rev- 
enue is  derived  from  state  lands.  Federal  land  grants,  and 
various  other  such  sources,  the  largest  part  of  the  money 
with  which  public  schools  are  supported  must  come  from 
taxation,  state  and  local.  Money  to  be  paid  out  from  the 
state  treasury  may  come  from  the  interest  upon  a  perma- 
nent state  fund,  or  from  the  proceeds  of  an  annual  tax,  or 
from  both.  The  state  should  supply  a  part  of  the  money 
in  order  that  a  fixed  minimum  of  income  may  be  always 
available  in  each  community,  and  in  order  that,  as  in  some 
states,  the  weaker  schools  may  receive  special  help.  But 
however  much  the  state  may  pay  in  support  of  schools, 
the  greater  part,  or  at  least  an  equal  part,  of  the  whole 
amount  devoted  to  elementary  and  secondary  education, 
should  be  derived  from  local  taxation. 

*  Ed.    Rev.    10:    170. 

2  See  the  "  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve,"  University  of  Chicago 
Press. 


1^4       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Local  Taxation  Best. —  Responsibility  for  the  proper 
spending  of  money  is  most  apt  to  be  felt  when  it  is  de- 
rived from  a  direct  local  tax.  A  community  usually  looks 
upon  any  sum  coming  from  the  state  treasury  as  a  sort 
of  gift,  and  the  old  proverb,  "  comes  easy,  goes  easy," 
applies.  To  receive  from  the  state  all  or  the  larger  part 
of  the  money  used  in  support  of  public  schools  deadens 
the  nerve  of  local  interest  and  so  of  local  effort.  This 
condition  has  long  been  the  curse  of  public  education  in 
some  sections  of  this'  country.  The  schools  have  been, 
and  are,  supported  almost  solely  by  the  state,  and  this, 
coupled  with  the  name  "  free  schools,"  has  made  almost 
ineradicable  the  idea  that  the  schools  are  for  charitable 
purposes  and  have  no  just  claim  upon  the  childless  tax- 
payer. A  good  local  tax  means  local  interest,  local  effort, 
and  personal  concern  to  secure  economical  expenditure 
and  the  best  results. 

The  Local  Unit  of  Taxation.^ — There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  single  school  district  is  the  least  desirable 
unit  of  taxation,  and  it  only  remains  to  determine  what 
larger  unit  should  be  used.  The  county  is  the  best  in 
all  states  which  are  made  up  of  small  counties,  and  in 
which  the  county  is  the  practical  unit  of  civil  organiza- 
tion, both  of  which  conditions  are  true  in  most  of  the 
southern  states.  The  township  system  *is  the  best  in 
states  whose  counties  are  relatively  large;  and  where  the 
township  (or  town)  is  usually  the  civil  unit.  There 
should  be  as  little  duplication  as  possible  of  the  machinery 
for  collecting  and  distributing  money  for  the  purposes 
of  community  life,  and  therefore  the  school  unit  and  the 
civil  suit  should,  when  possible,  be  coextensive. 

^  See  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1894—5;  2:  1457; 
Educational  Review  16:  254,  435;  and  17:  465;  Reports  of  National  Educa- 
tional   Association,    '90:    432,    and    '91:    211. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  125 

The  Distribution  of  School  Money. —  In  practice  and 
theory  ahke  it  seems  best  for  school  sites  to  be  bought, 
houses  to  be  buih  and  equipped,  provision  for  ah  inci- 
dental expenses,  repairs,  fuel,  light,  etc.,  and  a  part  of 
the  teacher's  salary,  to  come  out  of  the  local  revenue,  and 
for  all  of  the  state  revenue  to  be  applied  to  the  payment 
of  teachers. 

The  real  problem  of  distribution  is  that  of  a  just  basis 
of  allotment  to  the  smaller  school  communities.  There 
are  two  methods  of  distributing  school  money:  first,  an 
allotment  according  to  the  school  census ;  second,  an  allot- 
ment of  a  fixed  sum  to  each  district.  Each  of  these  modes 
of  distribution  is  modified  to  suit  different  localities,  and 
in  some  cases  both  are  combined.  That  method  of  dis- 
tribution is  nearest  the  ideal,  which  gives  special  aid  to 
the  weaker  school  communities,  and  at  the  same  time 
stimulates  the  teachers'  professional  zeal,  and  encourages 
local  interest  in  the  schools  in  respect  both  to  attendance 
and  to  financial  support. 

The  "  Fixed  Sum  "  Plan. —  Some  states,  of  which 
New  Jersey  is  a  type,  allot  a  fixed  sum  for  each  district. 
This  plan  puts  districts  upon  an  equal  footing  and  gives 
as  much  support  to  the  weak  as  to  the  strong.  Other 
states,  as  California,  allot  a  fixed  sum  for  each  teacher, 
which  serves  practically  the  same  purpose  as  that  of  allot- 
ment to  the  district.  Either  mode  of  distribution  tends 
to  cause  a  multiplication  of  districts  and  teachers,  but  this 
tendency  may  be  corrected  by  legal  limitations. 

The  "  School  Census"  Plan.—  The  method  of  allot- 
ment at  a  per  capita  rate  based  on  the  number  of  children 
of  school  age  has  the  merit  of  simplicity  and  the  demerit 
of  little  regard  for  the  relative  financial  strength  or  weak- 
ness of  school  communities.     However,  the  demerit  is  not 


126  .     ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

so  grave  as  it  appears.  The  most  teaching  is  needed 
where  are  the  most  children,  and  very  generally  the  most 
children  are  to  be  found  in  the  poorer  districts.  A  modi- 
fication of  the  census  plan,  in  effect  in  California  and  New 
Hampshire,  is  based  upon  attendance.  Such  a  modifica- 
tion is  good  in  communities  where  there  is  no  compulsory 
attendance  law,  and  is  helpful  in  the  enforcement  of  such 
law  where  it  exists. 

A  Composite  Plan. —  A  composite  plan  of  distribution, 
embodying  the  best  features  of  the  modes  in  vogue  in 
states  which  have  given  most  consideration  to  this  matter, 
may  be  outlined  as  follows : 

(i)  The  state  money  should  be  allotted  to  the  county 
(or  township)  in  proportion  to  the  school  census,  with  the 
proviso  that  the  county  (or  township)  shall  raise  by  taxa- 
tion a  sum  bearing  a  fixed  ratio  to  the  amount  received 
from  the  state.  This  ratio  should  hardly  be  less  than  one 
third. 

(2)  The  further  apportionment  of  the  total  fund,  les.f'- 
a  five  per  cent  reserve,  should  be  made  by  the  county  (or 
township)  superintendent,  or  treasurer,  on  the  basis  of  th^ 
grade  of  certificate  held  by  each  teacher  actually  employed, 
contracts  with  teachers  having  all  been  drawn  prior  to  the 
time  of  such  apportionment.^  The  discussion  of  the  cer- 
tification of  teachers  may  be  anticipated  here  enough 
to  say  that  for  the  purposes  of  the  apportionment  in- 
dicated above  there  need  be  but  four  grades  of  certifi- 
cates at  most,  two  granted  by  county  authority  and  two 
granted  (or  indorsed)  by  the  state.  The  payment  of 
money  to  the  teachers  may  be  made  on  a  fixed  minimum 

*  In  Indiana,  the  law  provides  that  the  daily  wages  of  teachers  "  shall 
aot  be  less  than  an  amount  determined  by  multiplying  two  and  one-half 
cents  by  the  general  average"  on  the  teacher's  certificate;  School  Law  of 
Indiana,  1901,  p.  215. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  127 

of  salary  as  a  basis,  or  the  whole  amount  may  be  divided 
according  to  a  series  of  ratios.  For  example,  the  fixed 
minimum  salary  may  be  $300,  and  the  other  salaries  mul- 
tiples of  this ;  and  the  ratios,  in  ascending  scale,  may  be  i, 
i^,  2,  2^.  Thus,  if  the  method  of  a  fixed  minimum 
be  followed,  teachers  holding  the  lowest  grade  of  certifi- 
cate will  receive  $300  each  for  their  services ;  those  hold- 
ing higher  grades  will  receive  $450,  $600,  and  $675  re- 
spectively. If  the  method  of  a  series  of  ratios,  starting 
from  a  variable  base,  be  used,  then  a  county  (or  town- 
ship) having  a  net  sum  of  $40,000  to  be  distributed  among 
eighty  teachers,  ten  holding  the  lowest  certificate,  fifty 
holding  the  next  higher,  twelve  the  next,  and  eight  the 
highest,  would  pay  to  each  of  the  ten  a  minimum  of 
$314.90,  to  each  of  the  next  a  minimum  of  $472.35,  and 
so  on  up. 

(3)  The  five  per  cent  reserve  and  the  sum  derived  by 
neglecting  fractions  of  cents  in  the  division,  should  con- 
stitute a  fund  for  encouraging  attendance,  and  should  be 
placed  to  the  credit  of  such  districts  as  show  during  the 
school  term  a  certain  percentage  of  average  attendance; 
perhaps  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  would  not 
be  too  low  a  requirement. 

Advantages  of  the  Composite  Plan. —  It  is  believed 
that  several  marked  advantages  inhere  in  the  plan  of  dis- 
tribution outlined  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

In  the  first  place,  the  method  is  simple  and  easily  adapt- 
able to  local  conditions  anywhere ;  there  is  a  minimum  of 
machinery  about  it. 

The  distribution  of  state  money  to  counties  or  town- 
ships on  the  basis  of  the  school  census  lends  the  aid  of  the 
state,  as  a  rule,  to  the  localities  where  the  need  of  teachers 
is  greatest. 


128       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

The  requirement  that  the  smaller  taxing  unit  (the 
county  or  the  township)  shall  supplement  the  amount 
received  from  the  state  brings  home  to  the  people  their 
responsibility  and  duty  of  self-help.  Leaving  this  sup- 
plementary sum  in  the  hands  of  the  local  authorities  to 
expend  increases  the  interest  in  the  schools  and  strength- 
ens the  feeling  of  responsibility  for  their  right  manage- 
ment. 

Payment  of  teachers  according  to  the  grade  of  their 
certificates  must  exert  a  powerful  and  direct  influence  in 
the  direction  of  more  thorough  academic  and  professional 
preparation  and  higher  standards.  If  differences  in 
grades  of  certificates  mean  anything  they  should  mean 
differences  in  capacity,  and  greater  capacity,  or  less, 
should  mean  a  larger  salary,  or  less. 

Another  decided  advantage  of  payment  according  to 
the  grade  of  certificate  is  found  in  the  fact  that  under 
such  plan  the  weakest  district  may  have  a  strong  teacher ; 
indeed,  the  smaller  districts  will  be  the  more  eagerly 
'  sought  by  teachers,  because  of  the  lighter  labor  demanded 
in  the  small  schools. 

The  equitable  distribution  of  the  five  per  cent  reserve 
on  the  basis  of  average  attendance  would  have  an  effect 
altogether  good.  This  money  should  be  passed  to  the 
credit  of  the  district  upon  the  books  of  the  superintendent 
or  treasurer,  and  its  use  should  by  law  be  limited  to  build- 
ing, repairing,  or  furnishing.  Such  an  arrangement 
would  quicken  in  each  taxpayer  a  personal  interest  in 
securing  good  attendance  throughout  the  school  session. 
Sttpervision   and  Administration 

The  State  Superintendent. —  At  the  head  of  the  school 
system  in  each  state  is  a  superintendent,  or  some  official 
with  similar  title  and  functions.     In  few  states,  however, 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  129 

does  the  state  superintendent  have,  under  the  law,  other 
than  clerical  duties.  In  some  cases  he  has  also,  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  judicial  and  executive  functions  relative  to  the 
school  laws.  Beyond  prescribing  a  course  of  study,  or 
daily  program,  he  has  usually  but  little  power  as  a  super- 
visor of  schools;  he  can  only  recommend  educational 
policy. 

But  while  the  legal  duties  of  the  state  superintendent 
are  thus  limited,  he  may  do  most  important  and  excellent 
service  to  the  cause  of  education.  His  counsel  is  always 
sought  and  often  followed  by  legislative  committees 
charged  with  the  task  of  making  changes  in  the  school 
law.  If,  therefore,  the  state  superintendent  be  a  man  of 
strong  personality  and  clear-cut  views  of  educational 
needs,  he  can  have  a  direct  and  helpful  influence  upon 
school  legislation.  So  also  if  to  personal  force  and  clear- 
ness of  educational  vision,  he  can  add  fluency  and  ade- 
quacy of  expression,  if  he  is  a  "  good  talker,"  he  can 
accomplish  decided  results  among  teachers  and  people. 
He  should  go  over  the  state,  visiting  and  addressing 
teachers'  institutes  and  associations  and  popular  meetings 
gathered  in  the  interests  of  education.  He  must  be  in 
the  highest  sense  an  educational  evangelist.  No  one 
should  be  eligible  to  the  oflice  of  state  superintendent 
who  has  not  had  abundant  and  successful  experience  as  a 
teacher,  and  the  pay  and  opportunity  of  doing  good  serv- 
ice to  educational  progress  should  both  be  such  as  to  tempt 
the  best  equipped  men  to  accept  the  office.  The  state 
superintendent  should  be  ex  officio  a  member  of  the  board 
of  trustees  of  each  state  educational  institution.  His  op- 
portunities, in  such  a  position,  would  be  excellent  for  reen- 
forcing  the  educational  influences  of  the  state. 

The  State  Board  of  Education. —  The  state  boards  of 

Roark's  Econ. — 9 


I30         ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

education  in  the  different  states  have  widely  varied  duties 
prescribed  by  law.  The  functions  which  seem  distinctive, 
and  that  justify  the  creation  of  such  a  board  as  a  part  of 
a  state's  educational  machinery,  are  (i)  to  frame  courses 
of  study  and  reading  for  pupils  and  teachers,  (2)  to  pre- 
scribe general  rules  and  regulations  for  the  management 
of  the  schools,  and  (3)  to  examine  and  certify  qualified 
applicants  for  state  certificates.  In  not  a  few  instances 
the  state  board  of  education  and  the  state  board  of  exam- 
iners are  distinct  bodies.  In  some  states  the  board  of  edu- 
cation is  made  up  of  ex  officio  members,  being  composed 
of  the  secretary  of  state,  attorney  general,  and  the  heads 
of  the  different  state  educational  institutions;  in  others, 
the  members  of  the  board  are  elected,  and  in  still  others 
they  are  appointed  by  the  governor  or  by  the  state  super- 
intendent. In  whatever  way  the  board  is  created,  the 
state  superintendent  should  be  either  its  chairman  or  secre- 
tary, with  authority  to  direct,  or  to  take  a  prominent  part 
in,  the  deliberations  and  acts  of  the  board. 

The  County  Superintendent. —  Nearly  all  of  the  states 
have  county  supervising  officers.  As  a  rule,  in  all  these 
states  the  authority  of  the  county  superintendent  is  over 
only  the  rural  schools.  There  is  practically  unanimous 
agreement  among  students  of  education  to-day  that  the 
rural  schools  need  close,  intelligent  supervision  throughout 
a  county,  or  some  smaller  unit  of  school  organization. 

To  give  such  supervision  men  and  women  must  be 
chosen  as  'superintendents  who,  by  scholarship,  profes- 
sional training,  and  successful  experience,  are  properly 
qualified  for  the  work.  A  recognition  of  this  truth  is 
embodied  in  law  in  many  states,  and  no  one  is  eligible  to 
a  county  superintendency  who  does  not  hold  a  legal  cer- 
tificate of  qualification.     If  such  a  safeguard  be  properly 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  131 

observed,  it  matters  little  whether  the  supervising  officer 
be  elected  or  appointed.  Like  the  state  superintendent, 
the  county  superintendent  should  be  competent  to  address 
persuasively  and  convincingly  any  public  gathering,  and 
be  able  to  show  the  need  and  value  of  sound  education. 
A  large  part  of  his  work  should  be  educational  evangeliza- 
tion. 

Duties  of  the  County  Superintendent. —  The  county 
(or  township)  superintendent  is  the  most  important 
school  officer  in  the  whole  rural  school  system.  Through 
his  active  service  the  uplift  of  the  schools  must  come,  or 
through  his  inefficiency  or  neglect  occur  their  degenera- 
tion and  decay.  In  addition  to  his  clerical  duties  he  dis- 
charges, in  most  states,  executive  and  even  judicial  func- 
tions also.  He  grants  and,  for  sufficient  reasons,  revokes 
certificates;  orders  the  erection  or  repairing  of  school- 
houses  ;  creates  new  districts ;  holds  institutes ;  and  decides 
minor  points  of  law.  In  some  states  where  there  is  no 
county  treasurer,  the  distribution  of  the  school  fund  is  one 
of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  county  superintendent. 
In  addition  to  these  things  he  is  required  by  law  to  visit 
and  supervise  all  the  schools  in  his  county. 

The  County  Board  of  Education. —  The  most  econom- 
ical administration  of  the  educational  business  of  a  county 
(or  t(3wnship)  can  be  secured  through  a  county  (or  town- 
ship) board  of  education,  rather  than  through  purely  local 
district  boards  of  directors  acting  independently  in  each 
district. 

Such  a  board  of  education  should  be  empowered  by  law 
to  contract  for  the  erection  and  repair  of  houses,  the  pur- 
chase of  all  supplies,  the  employment  and  dismissal  of 
teachers,  the  selection  of  text-books,  and  the  levying  of 
the  county  or  township  school  tax.     The  authority  and 


132       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

work  of  the  county  board  should  be  supplemented  in  each 
local  district  by  not  more  than  one  district  trustee  or 
director,  who  may  be  either  elected,  or  appointed  by  the 
county  superintendent,  and  whose  duties  should  be  to  visit 
the  school,  look  after  its  equipment,  make  requisition  upon 
the  county  board  for  needed  supplies,  and  report  upon  the 
character  of  the  work  done.  Where  truant  officers  are 
needed,  these  district  trustees  may  also  serve  as  such. 

Advantages  of  a  County  Board. —  The  advantages  of 
placing  the  administration  of  the  schools  of  a  county  or 
township  in  the  hands  of  a  central  board  are  recognized 
by  educators,  but  in  a  theoretical  rather  than  a  practical 
way.  Very  few  states  have  so  far  adopted  the  plan  of 
a  central  board  so  fully  as  above  outlined.  The  chief  ad- 
vantages of  such  a  plan  are  evident. 

( 1 )  It  uses  the  civil  unit  as  the  unit  of  school  adminis- 
tration. 

(2)  It  dignifies  the  office  of  school  trustee  by  making 
it  a  county  office  and  thus  secures  the  selection  of  better 
men  than  the  present  average  local  trustees.  It  is  a  fact 
which  speaks  for  itself  that  in  any  given  county  the  aver- 
age of  intelligence  and  of  official  competency  is  higher  in 
county  (or  township)  commissioners,  or  supervisors,  or 
in  a  fiscal  court,  than  in  a  local  district  board  of  trustees. 
The  people  of  a  community  are  much  more  watchful  of 
the  official  acts  of  county  officers,  and  hold  these  officers 
to  a  stricter  account  than  in  the  case  of  lesser  officials. 

(3)  In  consequence  of  these  facts  it  would  be  much 
more  difficult  to  bribe  or  otherwise  wrongly  influence  a 
county  or  township  board  than  a  local  board,  and  the 
members  would  in  every  way  be  further  removed  from 
petty  local  influences. 

Some  test  should  be  used  to  determine  the  fitness  of 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  133 

persons  to  serve  on  this  county  board  of  education.  The 
members  should  be  graduates  of  the  public  schools  whose 
interests  they  are  supposed  to  have  under  their  care. 

A  Complete  County  System. —  The  general  plan 
above  suggested  could  be  much  more  simply  and  therefore 
effectively  applied  if  the  rural  schools  of  a  county  and  the 
town  and  city  schools,  except  in  the  case  of  the  large 
cities,  were  all  placed  upon  the  same  footing  and  under 
the  same  administration.  The  practical  working  of 
such  a  plan  has  been  for  many  years  most  successfully 
illustrated  in  Richmond  County,  Georgia.^  The  funda- 
mental principle  seems  fully  operative  there,  that  educa- 
tion is  the  duty  of  the  whole  community,  and  that  the 
wealth  of  the  community  as  a  whole  should  be  laid  under 
tribute  for  the  discharge  of  this^  duty.  In  that  county 
the  rural  schools  and  those  in  the  towns  are  under  the 
same  board  and  superintendent,  the  teachers  in  town  and 
county  receive  the  same  wages  for  the  same  grade  of 
work,  the  school  terms  are  the  same  length,  and  the  pupils 
receive  the  same  advantages. 

The  plan  has  received  the  indorsement  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools,  whose  report  says, 
"  The  subcommittee  confidently  believes  that  this  mode 
of  school  organization  has  a  great  future  before  it  in 
the  United  States."  The  strange  fact  is  that  this  simple 
and  economical  method  of  administering  the  schools  of  a 
county  has  not  been  used  in  other  states.  All  that  can 
justly  be  said  about  the  plan  at  all  must  be  said  in 
its  favor. 

Teachers 

Responsibility  for  the  condition  of  the  schools  in  a  given 
community  will  be  found  moving  in  a  circle ;  if  the  people 

*  Ed.   Rev.   11:369;  "Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve,"  p.    132. 


134 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


were  more  awake  on  educational  matters  they  would  re- 
quire better  service  of  school  boards ;  if  there  were  better 
school  boards,  with  awakened  public  sentiment  behind 
them  they  would  employ  better  teachers;  if  the  teachers 
were  better,  they  would  make  the  community  sensitive  to 
its  educational  needs,  or  would  at  least  bring  up  another 
generation  that  would  be  educationally  progressive.  The 
gravest  indictment  that  can  be  brought  against  the  com- 
mon schools  is  the  fact  that  the  citizenship  which  they 
produce  is  so  indifferent  as  it  is  to  them  and  their  work. 
So  it  would  seem  that,  in  the  last  analysis,  the  responsi- 
bility for  educational  conditions,  good  or  bad,  lies  with 
the  teachers. 

Elements  of  Fitness. —  Before  a  teacher  is  certificated 
as  such,  his  fitness  must  be  ascertained,  and  to  determine 
this  it  is  necessary  to  know  what  elements  constitute  fit- 
ness to  teach. 

School  communities,  when  unbiased  by  merely  local 
considerations,  have  recognized  in  greater  or  less  degree 
that  the  elements  of  fitness  found  in  the  good  teacher  are 
physical  wholeness  and  soundness,  knowledge  of  subject- 
matter,  professional  skill,  unquestionable  morals,  and  a 
liberal  culture  at  whose  core  is  an  enthusiastic  and  mag- 
netic personality. 

No  method  has  been  formulated,  or  can  be,  for  deter- 
mining the  presence  of  all  these  elements  in  the  person  of 
an  applicant  for  a  teacher's  certificate. 

Physical  Wholeness. —  In  no  state,  yet,  is  an  applicant 
for  a  teacher's  certificate  required  to  present  any  evidence 
of  physical  fitness  to  enter  upon  the  labors  of  the  school- 
room. But  a  growing  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  com- 
municability  of  disease,  and  of  the  relation  between  a 
sound  body  and  mental  fitness  will  soon  bring  parents  to 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  135 

the  point  of  demanding  that  a  teacher's  certificate  shall 
vouch  for  his  soundness  of  body.  Children  are  highly 
susceptible  to  untoward  influences,  as  well  as  to  those  that 
are  favorable,  and  the  wholesome  efficiency  of  any  teacher 
would  be  greatly  diminished  by  marked  deformity,  or 
ugliness  of  form  or  feature ;  and  the  pupils  would  be  im- 
periled if  they  were  in  charge  of  a  teacher  who  had  any 
communicable  disease,  such  as  consumption. 

Knowledge  of  Subject-matter. —  Although  even  the 
"  man  in  the  street "  would  assent  to  the  proposition  that 
the  teacher  must  know  his  subject,  yet  few  examining 
boards  hold  the  standard  so  high  as  to  insure  on  the  part 
of  teachers  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  of  fundamental 
facts  and  their  relations  in  the  common-school  subjects. 
Of  course,  a  teacher  should  know  his  subject  beyond  the 
limits  of  any  one  text-book ;  text-books  are  for  pupils,  not 
for  teachers,  and  Goethe  has  said,  "  Nothing  is  more 
frightful  than  a  teacher  who  knows  only  what  the  pupils 
are  expected  to  know."  The  most  reliable  evidence  of  a 
teacher's  adequate  knowledge  of  a  subject  is  not  the  "  per 
cent "  shown  on  his  certificate,  but  his  ability  to  con- 
duct a  recitation  in  that  subject,  without  a  text-book  in 
hand. 

Professional  Skill. —  Very  slowly  the  fact  that  knowl-* 
edge  does  not  necessarily  give  power,  much  less  skill,  is 
forcing  a  recognition.  Many  holders  of  high-grade 
certificates  fail  in  the  schoolroom;  with  knowledge  of 
arithmetic  or  science  does  not  by  any  means  always  go 
ability  to  teach  arithmetic  or  science.  Some  things  most 
essential  to  successful  teaching,  namely,  sound  common 
sense,  abounding  enthusiasm,  and  abiding  character,  can 
not  be  tested  by  any  sort  of  formal  examination.  These 
can  be  evidenced  only  through  teaching,  not  merely  the 


136       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

artificial  teaching  in  a  practice  school,  but  teaching  under 
the  complex  conditions  of  the  multi-graded  rural  school. 

It  is  but  right  to  demand,  then,  in  the  name  of  the  chil- 
dren, that  no  one,  no  matter  what  his  scholarship  may  be, 
shall  be  given  other  than  a  probationary  certificate  until 
he  has  first  proved  his  teaching  power  by  marked  success 
in  the  management  and  teaching  of  a  school.  The  super- 
vision of  the  rural  teachers'  work  must  be  intelligent 
enough  and  close  enough  to  enable  the  supervising  author- 
ity to  give  trustworthy  testimony  to  the  teachers'  profes- 
sional fitness  or  lack  of  it,  and  if,  as  often  happens,  pro- 
fessional power  does  not  develop  during  the  probationary 
period,  then  an  advanced  certificate  should  not  be  granted 
at  all. 

Moral  Character. —  The  importance  of  sound  morality 
of  thought  and  life  in  one  who  would  teach  has  long  been 
recognized,  and  the  recognition  is  incorporated  directly  or 
indirectly  in  the  law  of  every  state.  Applicants  for  cer- 
tificates must  present  evidence  of  moral  fitness  before 
entering  upon  examination ;  and  in  most  states  the  county 
superintendent  is  required  by  law  to  cancel  the  certificate 
of  any  teacher  who  is  guilty  of  a  lapse  from  morality. 

A  safe  rule  for  an  examining  board  to  follow  in  deter- 
mining the  moral  fitness  of  an  applicant  is,  "  The  ethical 
level  of  the  teacher's  life  must  be  much  higher  than  the 
average  level  of  the  whole  community." 

Culture. —  All  the  elements  so  far  enumerated  as  nec- 
essary to  the  equipment  of  a  teacher  are  to  be  found  in 
varying  degree  in  the  something  we  agree  to  call  "  cul- 
ture." But  having  all  these,  the  teacher  may  yet  lack 
culture.  Health,  adequate  knowledge  of  subject-matter, 
professional  spirit  and  skill,  and  sound  morals  must  be 
interfused  with  a  genial  and  strong  personality,  some  ex- 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  137 

perience  of  the  polite  world  and  its  conventions,  and  an 
easy  familiarity  with  the  current  movements  in  the  more 
important  departments  of  human  activity.  If  it  be  said 
that  in  the  last  few^  paragraphs  a  rather  high  standard  is 
set  for  rural  teachers  who  work  for  an  average  of  thirty 
to  fifty  dollars  a  month,  then  the  answer  must  be  that 
without  high  standards  no  progress  is  possible,  and 
that  the  best  is  hardly  good  enough  for  the  children  of  the 
country.  Individually  they  have  a  right  to  as  good  teach- 
ing as  any  other  children,  and  collectively  they  constitute 
about  two  thirds  of  the  total  school  population. 

Certification  of  Teachers  ^ 

Until  the  work  of  elementary  teaching  becomes  a  pro- 
fession and  is  so  recognized,  some  such  methods  as  at 
present  in  vogue  will  be  used  for  ascertaining  the  approxi- 
mate fitness  of  a  man  or  woman  to  discharge  the  duties 
of  a  teacher.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  methods  of  cer- 
tification rQst  at  bottom  upon  an  examination  either  con- 
ducted directly  by  the  certificating  authorities  or  held  as 
a  prerequisite  to  the  obtaining  of  a  training  school  diploma 
which  may  be  indorsed  by  the  certificating  board.  It 
needs  but  little  argument  to  show  that  an  examination, 
which  as  usually  conducted  is  chiefly  a  test  of  memory, 
is  essentially  a  wrong  basis  upon  which  to  rest  the  declara- 
tion of  a  person's  fitness  to  teach. 

To  grant  certificates  based  solely  upon  an  examination, 
or  to  accept  training  school  diplomas  also  based  mainly 
upon  examinations,  is  perhaps  the  present  best  that  can  be 
done  in  the  case  of  persons  just  entering  the  ranks  of 
teachers.     But  any  certificate  legally  good  for  a  longer 

*"  Report  of  Com.  of  Twelve,"  p.  90;  Circ.  of  Information  No.  6,  1888, 
Bureau  of  Ed.,  Wash.;  Circ.  of  Information  No.  2,  1889,  Bureau  of  Ed., 
Wash.     See  also  School  Laws  of  various  States. 


138       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

time  than  one  year  should  be  based  also  upon  properly 
attested  successful  experience. 

Number  and  Grades  of  Certificates. —  Not  more  than 
four  grades  of  certificates  need  be  granted  under  state 
and  county  authority,  to  those  who  are  to  teach  in  rural 
schools,  including  rural  high  schools.  The  county  exam- 
ining board  should  grant  two  grades,  good  for  one  and 
four  years  respectively,  and  usable  only  in  the  county  of 
issue;  and  the  state  examining  board  should  grant  two 
grades,  one  good  for  eight  years  and  usable  within  the 
limits  of  the  state  in  any  school  directly  under  the  state 
or  county  authority  below  the  high  school. 

The  higher  state  certificate  should  be  good  for  life, 
except  in  case  of  failure  for  two  consecutive  years  to  do 
some  sort  of  educational  work,  and  should  entitle  its 
holder  to  teach  in  any  school  of  a  rank  not  higher  than 
that  of  a  first-class  high  school. 

The  difference  in  grade  in  these  certificates  should  be 
based  upon  scholarship,  professional  training,  and  terms 
of  experience,  the  two  highest  being  granted  only  in  rec- 
ognition of  high  academic  acquirements,  tested  experi- 
ence, and  specific  professional  training. 

Employment  of  Teachers 

Teachers  should  be  employed  by  township  or  county 
boards  of  education,  not  by  local  district  boards.  Em- 
ployment by  local  boards  is  too  apt  to  be  governed  by 
nepotism  or  other  forms  of  favoritism.  The  county  or 
township  board  should  meet  on  a  given  date,  previous  to 
which  all  applicants  for  schools  should  have  been  required 
to  file  their  applications,  certificates,  and  testimonials,  and 
should  within  a  legal  limit  of  five  days  assign  teachers  to 
the  schools,  and  fix  the  dates  upon  which  the  schools 
should  open. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  139 

The  teacher  should  be  employed  for  the  whole  term  of 
school.  In  some  places  the  wretched  practice  obtains  of 
dividing  the  school  term  among  two  or  more  teachers,  in 
order  that  each  may  have  a  little  share  of  the  public 
money!  One  of  the  most  evil  of  present  rural  school 
conditions  is  the  short  tenure  of  position  in  any  one  place 
by  the  same  teacher.^  To  remedy  this,  employing  boards 
should  use  every  means  available.  Contracts  might  be 
made  for  two  or  more  years  with  teachers  holding  the 
higher  certificates. 

Length  of  School  Term 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation for  1 899- 1 900,  two  states,  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, report  an  annual  term  of  189  days,  and  the  length 
of  the  term  runs  all  the  way  down  from  that  figure  to  70.8 
days  in  North  Carolina.  In  most  states  a  minimum  term 
is  fixed  by  law,  but  in  few  is  it  sufficient.  In  no  case 
should  a  rural  school  remain  in  session  for  a  shorter  time 
than  seven  school  months.  If  every  state  should  fix  the 
minimum  term  at  this  number  of  months,  there  would  soon 
be  a  marked  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  illiteracy.  No 
really  economical  use  can  be  made  of  the  pupils'  time  and 
energy  in  a  shorter  time  than  this. 

But,  not  counting  the  indifference  of  the  people,  which 
is  the  gravest  of  all  obstacles  to  progress,  there  are  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  at  least  two  practical  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  extending  the  school  term.  These  are  a 
lack  of  money  with  which  to  pay  adequate  wages  and 
provide  schoolhouses  that  can  be  used  in  the  winter 
months,  and  the  other,  indirectly  attributable  to  the  same 
cause,  is  bafl  roads.  For  these  things  the  sole  remedy  is 
education. 

*  Report  of  National  Educational  Association,  '87:   307. 


140       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Spring  Schools. —  Many  states  in  which  the  length  of 
the  term  is  correctly  reported  officially  as  only  four  or  five 
months,  yet  actually  have  a  longer  term.  After  the  regu- 
lar public  school  is  taught,  a. "  spring  school  "  is  organized 
and  continued  lor  two  or  three  months.  The  spring 
school  is  a  "  subscription  school,"  in  many  instances  being 
supported  wholly  by  the  subscriptions  of  a  few  well-to-do 
families  in  the  district.  There  appears  to  be  no  good 
reason  why  men  of  wealth  should  not  endow  elementary 
schools  as  well  as  the  college  or  university.^ 

The  spring  school  should  receive  from  the  local  and 
county  authorities  semi-official  recognition  and  encour- 
agement, in  all  cases,  at  least,  where  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  extend  the  term  by  a  local  tax.  No  one  who 
does  not  hold  a  legal  certificate,  or  its  equivalent,  should 
be  permitted  to  use  the  public  schoolhouse  for  a  sub- 
scription school,  and  the  permission  to  use  the  house 
should  always  be  given  with  the  proviso  that  the  school 
shall  be  free  to  all  children  of  school  age  in  the  district. 

Voluntary  Teaching. —  In  North  Carolina,  and  possi- 
bly other  states,  in  order  to  lengthen  the  school  term, 
students  in  state  or  private  teachers'  training  schools  are 
encouraged  to  supplement  the  regular  term  in  the  rural 
schools  with  two  or  three  months  of  teaching  without 
other  compensation  than  board  and  lodging.  Good  re- 
sults for  the  schools  are  reported,  and  certainly  the  train- 
ing the  pupil  teacher  gets  in  that  way  is  as  practical  and 
valuable  as  that  afforded  by  "  practice  work "  in  the 
teachers'  training  schools,  more  so,  in  fact,  for  the  teacher 
gets  the  training  of  the  "  first  day  "  of  school. 

*  A  splendid  object  lesson  has  been  given  by  the  Hon.  J.  H.  Stout 
in  endowing  public  schools  at  Menomonie,  Wis.  See  World's  Work, 
7:    4540. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  141 

Concentration  of  Rural  ScJwols 
The  plan  known  as  "  consolidation  of  schools  and  trans- 
portation of  pupils  "  ^  has  been  found  a  potential  remedy 
for  many  ills  that  affect  rural  schools.  It  has  received 
the  unqualified  indorsement  of  school  authorities  wher- 
ever it  has  been  tried,  and  it  has  been  tried  in  such  widely 
separated  and  different  parts  of  this  country  (in  Massa- 
chusetts, Ohio,  Iowa,  and  Florida,  for  example),  that  a 
general  conclusion  as  to  its  efficacy  ^may  be  safely  drawn. 
Under  this  plan  small,  weak  schools  are  abolished,  a 
large  building  is  erected  at  some  central  point,  and  men 
are  employed  to  transport  the  pupils  from  home  to  school, 
and  back,  in  covered  wagons.  Some  of  the  more  marked 
results  have  been  found  to  be  (i)  largely  increased  at- 
tendance and  no  tardiness;  (2)  better  health  of  the  chil- 
dren by  reason  of  more  comfortable  schoolhouses  and 
protection  from  bad  weather  in  going  to  and  from  school ; 
(3)  larger  wages  for  teachers  and  therefore  better  teach- 
ers and  longer  terms,  by  reason  of  not  having  to  divide 
the  money  among  several  districts ;  (4)  the  better  grad- 
ing and  classifying  of  pupils,  and  consequent  opportun- 
ities for  using  improved  methods  of  teaching;  (5)  great- 
er social  solidarity  in  the  community. 

Here  educational  economy  and  political  economy  come 
into  contact,  for  consolidation  of  schools  is  hardly  possible 
without  good  roads.  The  only  cure  for  isolation  is  to 
facilitate  transit  from  place  to  place. 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve,  p.  135;  School  Review,  8:  213. 
335;  Report  of  the  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.  1894-^,  2:  1469*.  1895-6,  2: 
1353;  Report  of  the  State  Supt.  of  Iowa  for  1900;  Wisconsin  State  Super- 
intendent's Bulletin  No.  5  (1900);  Bulletin  No.  71  (1901)  Penna.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture;  "The  Consolidation  of  School  Dists.,  etc.,"  Dept.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,  Neb.,  (1903);  Ed,ucational  Review,  20:241;  Report  of  Nat.  Com- 
missioner of  Ed.,  *99-'oo,  2:  2581;  same  for  1901:  161,  2396;  Proceedings 
of  N.  E.  A.,  '01:  293;  Proceedings  of  N.  E.  A.,  '02:  224,  793. 


142       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 
Compulsory  Attendance  ^ 

A  logical  corollary  to  the  proposition  that  the  state  and 
the  local  community  shall  supply  the  means  of  education 
for  all,  is  that  all  shall  use  the  means  afforded.  Any 
argument  valid  for  public  education  is  equally  valid  for 
compulsory  school  attendance. 

This  proposition  is  far  reaching  and  like  many  others 
in  educational  economy  touches  political  economy  and 
sociology  at  several  points.  Since  compulsory  laws,  in 
order  to  avoid  conflict  with  the  constitutional  guarantee 
of  religious  liberty,  must  provide  that  parents  may  send 
their  children  to  schools  other  than  the  public  schools, 
if  they  so  desire,  the  question  of  at  least  indirect  *state 
supervision  of  private  schools  is  also  involved. 

It  seems  clear  that  states  in  which  compulsory  attend- 
ance laws  are  in  force  have  a  right  to  require  that  private 
schools,  to  which  children  may  be  sent  under  the  condi- 
tions of  the  law,  shall  come  up  to  a  certain  standard  of 
work.  Morally,  the  state  has  no  right  to  enforce  attend- 
ance anywhere  unless  the  teaching  is  good,  the  houses 
comfortable  and  safe,  and  the  roads  in  proper  condition 
for  travel  during  the  time  attendance  is  required.  A 
compulsory  attendance  law  must  be  reenforced  by  laws 
regulating  or  forbidding  child  labor  in  mills,  factories, 
sweat-shops,  and  mines.^  Enlightened  public  sentiment  is 
beginning  to  demand  legislation  also  regulating  the  labor 
of  women  in  these  places,  as  having  a  very  direct  bearing 
upon  the  physical  and  mental  capacity  of  children  to  use 


^Reports  of  the  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.  for  1888-9,  i:  47o;  1894-5, 
i:  1 1 18;  1895-6,  2:  1350.  See  the  Report  of  the  National  Commissioner 
for   1893-4,  2:    1 35 1,  et  seq.,  and  reports  of  State   Superintendents. 

2  Rep.  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  '99-'oo,  2;  2598;  Bulletin  of  Bureau 
of  Labor   (Wash.),  May,    1904. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  143 

the  schools  the  state  prqvides.  Intimately  bound  up  with 
the  matter  of  compulsory  attendance  is  the  question  of 
schools  for  truants  and  incorrigibles.^ 

A  compulsory  law  is  practically  a  dead  letter,  unless 
provision  is  made  for  special  truant  officers  with  power  of 
arrest. 

Text-book  Supply, 

Every  state  has  made  laws  defining  the  terms  and  con- 
ditions of  text-book  supply.^  The  common  purpose  of  all 
these  laws  is  to  obtain  the  most  suitable  books  at  reason- 
able prices,  and  insure  their  full  and  prompt  distribution. 

Local  Adoption. —  Local  school  boards  adopt  and  con- 
tract for  books  at  fixed  prices.  This  places  the  respon- 
sibility close  to  those  who  are  to  use  the  books,  of  selecting 
books  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  people. 

State  Adoptions. —  These  are  usually  made  by  state 
boards  of  education,  or  specially  appointed  text-bopk  com- 
missions. This  form  aims  to  secure  two  objects, —  com- 
plete uniformity  and  low  prices.  Many  doubt  its  expe- 
diency since  no  one  set  of  books  is  equally  adapted  to  use 
in  cities  and  in  rural  communities ;  to  the  highly  trained 
teacher  and  to  the  unskilled  teacher ;  to  schools  with  long 
terms  and  to  schools  with  short  terms.  Under  such  adop- 
tions intense  contests  frequently  arise,  and  through  polit- 
ical pressure  there  is  danger  that  the  cheapest  instead  of 
the  best  books  may  be  selected.  The  chief  claim  made 
in  favor  of  uniformity  is  that  the  few  parents  who  move 
from  one  district  or  county  to  another,  will  not  be 
obliged  to  buy  new  books. 


f 


^Report  of  the  National  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1899— 1900,  i: 
85;  also  N.   E.   A.   Report,    1901:    820. 

2  Consult  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1893-4,  p. 
1063,  et  seq.,  and  for  1897—8,  p.  893;  and  current  reports  of  State  Supts. 
for  latest  changes. 


144        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

The  State  as  Publisher. —  California  publishes  most  of 
the  school  books  used  in  the  common  schools  of  the  state, 
but  on  account  of  general  dissatisfaction,  has  recently 
modified  its  plan.  This  method  has  proved  very  expen- 
sive, while  the  books  themselves  are  furnished  to  the 
pupils  at  about  the  same  prices  which  rule  for  similar 
books  in  the  open  market. 

Security  and  Prices. —  Each  of  these  different  forms  of 
contract  affords  protection  against  overcharges  for  books 
by  defining  the  prices  at  which  they  shall  be  supplied. 
Open  competition  for  small  units  of  adoption,  like  dis- 
tricts, towns,  or  counties,  secures  the  best  books  at  rea- 
sonable rates ;  while  adaptation,  as  opposed  to  a  too  strict 
uniformity,  is  a  distinct  educational  advantage. 

Free  Text-books. —  Another  experiment  in  educational 
economy  indorsed  by  some  who  have  tried  it,  is  the  pur- 
chase of  text-books  through  public  taxation,  and  the  loan- 
ing of  them  to  pupils.  The  chief  arguments  advanced  for 
this  plan  are  a  full  and  prompt  supply  of  books  (which 
often  fails  for  lack  of  sufficient  appropriation),  and  the 
relief  to  the  poorer  part  of  the  community.  The  objec- 
tions raised  are  that  it  tends  to  paternalism;  that  it  de- 
prives the  pupils  of  the  interest  in  their  books  coming 
from  individual  ownership;  and  that  it  deprives  many 
homes  of  the  possession  and  use  of  the  only  books  which 
ever  re^ch  them.  It  is  further  objected  that  books  so 
loaned  and  used  by  many  hands  become  filthy  and  liable  to 
communicate  contagious  diseases. 

(b)  The  Rural  High  School 

Formal  education  must  be  a  continuous  process,  and 
this  it  can  not  be,  so  far  as  the  state  is  concerned,  if  a  gap 
is  left  between  the  elementary  schools  and  the  colleges. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  145 

'*  Universal  education  "  must  be  interpreted  to  mean 
universal  elementary  education  only,  unless  there  are 
facilities  by  which  all  may  have  opportunity  to  get  the 
full  measure  of  education  offered  by  the  state.  One  ele- 
ment of  true  economy  consists  in  securing  the  largest  re- 
turns upon  an  investment.  The  state  makes  a  very  heavy 
investment  in  college  and  university,  and  it  is  wasteful 
not  to  provide  for  bringing  under  the  influence  of  these 
higher  institutions  the  greatest  possible  number  of  bright 
young  minds. 

The  connecting  link  between  the  elementary  and  the 
higher  education  is  the  high  school,  and  to  its  advantages 
the  children  of  the  country  have  as  clear  a  title  as  the 
children  of  the  city.  This  fact  is  recognized  in  several 
states,^  and  township  high  schools  are  provided  for  by 
law,  to  which  graduates  from  the  elementary  schools  are 
admitted,  and  the  graduates  from  which  may  in  turn 
enter,  upon  diploma  or  certificate,  the  freshman  classes 
of  the  higher  state  institutions.  The  expense  of  the 
rural  high  school  is  borne  by  the  township  as  a  whole,  or 
by  tuition  fees  paid  by  the  district  for  each  common 
school  graduate  attending  from  that  district. 

County  High  Schools. —  In  states  where  the  county, 
instead  of  the  township,  is  the  unit,  there  should  be  main- 
tained a  county  high  school.  Part  of  its  support  should 
come  from  a  county  tax  and  part  from  fees  paid  by  each 
school  district  for  the  pupils  it  has  in  attendance. 

In  most  instances,  the  larger  towns  of  a  county  have 
fairly  well  organized  high  schools,  and  economy  demands 
that  arrangements  should  be  made  with  these  for  admit- 
ting the  graduates  of  the  elementary  rural  schools.     The 

^  See  especially  the  School  Laws  of  Mass.,   Vt.,  Conn.,  Ohio,  Minn.;  also 
The  School  Review,   Vol.   8:    213,   335;    12:    148,   267;    Report   of   the   Nat. 
Commissioner   of*  Ed»   '99— 'oo,    i :    643. 
Roark's  Econ. — 10 


146       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

question  of  transportation  of  pupils,  already  mentioned 
on  p.  141,  is  intimately  bound  up  with  that  of  rural  high 
schools.  When  both  questions  are  answered  properly 
and  together,  the  country  boys  and  girls  will  find  a  broad 
and  open  highway  from  their  doors  to  the  state  univer- 
sity ;  and  this  is  undeniably  their  right. 

(c)  The  College  and  University 

The  closing  sentence  of  the  preceding  paragraph  as- 
sumes that  it  is  the  business  of  the  state  to  provide  the 
higher  education,  and  the  assumption  has  perhaps  sufn- 
cient  support  in  the  fact  that  in  nearly  every  state  is 
found  at  least  one  institution  of  collegiate  or  university 
rank,  sustained  at  public  expense.  The  character  of  ad- 
vanced state  education  and  the  limit  of  the  state's  duty 
in  providing  it,  are  matters  by  no  means  settled  and  it  is 
not  proposed  to  discuss  them  here,  the  present  concern 
being  with  the  question  as  to  what  is  the  place  of  higher 
institutions  in  a  state  system,  and  how  they  shall  be  cor- 
related with  other  parts  of  that  system.^ 

Position  of  the  College.^ — The  college  is  to-day  in 
danger  of  losing  its  distinctive  character,  through  botli 
the  encroachments  of  the  high  school,  and  its  own  am- 
bitious atterapts  at  work  properly  belonging  only  in  the 
sphere  of  the  university.  But  a  strong  reaction  from 
this  abnormal  condition  is  now  making  itself  felt,  and  the 
college  will  doubtless  soon  take  its  rightful  place  between 
the  high  school  and  the  university.  In  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  schools,  there  is  where  it  should  be  and  discharge 

1 "  Care  and  Culture  of  Men,"  (Jordan)  Whitaker  &  Ray  Co.,  San 
Francisco. 

2  "  Opportunity  of  the  Small  College,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  87:  763;  "The 
American  College  in  the  Twentieth  Century,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  85:  219; 
"  The  Encroachment  of  the  College  Upon  the  University,"  International 
Monthly,  3:  634;  "Differences  Between  the  College  and  the  University," 
Educational   Review,  8:  26. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS.  147 

its  distinctive  functions  without  having  them  encroached 
upon  by  the  high  school  and  without  trying  fruitlessly  to 
ape  those  of  the  university. 

If  a  state  is  too  poor  properly  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  university,  and  most  states  are,  then  it  would  be 
simple  wisdom  and  economy  to  make  the  highest  state 
institution  a  real  college  doing  thoroughly  the  work  of  a 
college  and  that  only. 

If  the  state  can  and  does  properly  support  a  state  uni- 
versity, economy  does  not  necessarily  demand  that  all  the 
higher  educational  work,  that  of  the  college  as  well  as  that 
of  the  university,  shall  be  under  one  management  and  at 
the  same  place.  In  either  case,  whether  the  state  under- 
takes only  the  work  of  a  college  or  assumes  also  that  of  a 
university,  the  fact  must  be  clearly  kept  in  view  that  at 
least  one  purpose  of  a  college  is  to  prepare  its  graduates 
to  undertake,  if  they  choose,  a  university  training.  The 
college  should  receive  the  graduates  of  the  high  school 
and  pass  them  on,  if  they  desire  to  go,  to  the  university ; 
no  one  of  these  three  educational  agencies  should  do  the 
work  of  either  of  the  other  two ;  in  a  state  system  there 
should  be  no  waste  of  time  or  loss  of  work  already  done, 
in  passing  from  one  institution  to  another. 

Voluntary  Systemization  of  Schools. —  There  are 
many  schools  working  on  private  endowment,  and  having 
no  connection  with  the  state  except  through  their  charters. 
The  largest  universities  of  this  country,  the  denominational 
colleges,  and  a  host  of  private  secondary  schools  belong 
to  this  class.  It  would  be  great  economy  not  only  to 
the  individual  school  but  to  the  whole  work  of  education 
in  the  community,  if  these  institutions  should,  in  any  given 
state  or  group  of  states,  form  a  voluntary  association 
whereby  their  work  could  be  simplified  and  systemized. 


148       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Colleges  quite  commonly  accredit  the  work  of  second- 
ary schools  under  certain  conditions,  and  universities  usu- 
ally accredit  the  work  of  denominational  colleges  of  es- 
tablished grade.  But  such  arrangements  have  hereto- 
fore been  with  a  view  to  increase  the  clientele  of  some 
individual  college  or  university  rather  than  to  effect  any 
systematic  inter-scholastic  organization.  But  in  1900  the 
institutions  represented  in  the  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle  States  and  Mary- 
land agreed  upon  a  plan  of  uniform  requirements  for  en- 
trance to  college  that  practically  binds  these  institutions 
into  a  system.  In  accordance  with  the  plan  adopted  by 
that  Association,  uniform  entrance  examinations  are  held 
simultaneously  at  different  points  by  examining  boards, 
whose  certificates  are  accepted  at  their  face  value  by  the 
colleges  concerned.  A  similar  association  has  been 
formed  in  the  South. 

Affiliated  Colleges. —  Several  years  ago  a  plan  for 
affiliating  private  colleges  with  the  state  university  was 
outlined  before  the  State  Educational  Association  of 
Missouri.^  It  received  but  little  notice  there  or  else- 
where, but  deserves  careful  consideration  as  a  possible 
means  of  freeing  the  university  from  the  necessity  of  so 
much  undergraduate  work,  and  of  closely  and  econom- 
ically correlating  the  service  of  all  the  higher  institutions 
in  a  given  state.  Briefly,  the  plan  provides  for  such  a  vol- 
untary association  between  private  colleges  and  the  state 
university  as  shall  enable  the  university  authoritatively 
to  lay  but  and  supervise,  in  essentials,  the  courses  of 
study  offered  by  the  colleges ;  and  it  further  provides  for 
the  recognition  by  the  university  of  graduates  of  these 
colleges,    so    that   a   graduate   would   be    known    as    a 

*  Report  of  Nat.   Commissioner  of  Ed.  for   1891— 2,  p.   753,  et  seq. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  149 

"  Bachelor  of  Arts  from College  of  Missouri 

University."  This  method  of  combining  the  educational 
institutions  of  a  state  has  much  to  commend  it  to  the  at- 
tention of  educational  economists. 

(d)  The  Professional  Training  of  Teachers 
State  Schools  for  Teachers 

The  term  "  normal "  is  not  properly  applicable  as  a 
distinguishing  adjective,  in  any  of  its  meanings,  to 
schools  whose  aim  is  the  training  of  teachers.  It  im- 
plies a  difference  that  either  does  not  exist  or  should  n^t 
exist.  If  the  training  school  does  academic  v^ork  (as  it 
must  and  should)  and  the  word  is  used  to  describe  the 
methods  of  teaching  and  studying  subject-matter,  then  a 
condition  is  implied  which  should  not  obtain.  The  sub- 
ject-matter of  academic  studies  should  be  taught  as 
"  normally  "  in  the  high  school  or  the  college  as  in  a 
teachers'  training  school.  If  the  teachers'  training  school 
assumes  academic  equipment  on  the  part  of  its  pupils,  and 
does  only  professional  work,  the  term  "  normal "  is  no 
more  applicable  to  it  than  to  a  school  of  law,  or  medi- 
cine, or  theology.  Space  is  taken  here  to  say  thus  much, 
both  because  the  word  is  a  misnomer,  and  because  it  has, 
unfortunately,  fallen  into  serious  disrepute. 

Schools  maintained  for  the  training  of  teachers  are 
necessary  to  a  state  system  of  education.  The  state 
should  no  more  depend  upon  private  training  schools  in 
this  matter  than  the  nation  should  depend  wholly  on  vol- 
unteers in  case  of  war. 

It  is  true,  even  in  those  states  having  the  most  and 
best  equipped  teachers'  training  schools,  that  compara- 
tively few  teachers  have  had  the  training  which  these 
schools  afford.     But  they  serve  to  leaven  the  whole  lump 


'  150       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMlNISTRATtON 

and  to  raise  the  standard  of  requirements  for  certifica- 
tion. 

If  any  state  had  the  courage  to  say  that,  after  a  certain 
time,  no  one  should  teach  in  the  pubHc  schools  who  had 
not  had  at  least  one  year's  successful  study  in  a  state 
teachers'  training  school,  and  that  the  higher  positions 
could  be  secured  only  by  graduates  of  such  a  school,  the 
best  of  those  who  desire  to  teach  would  quickly  meet  the 
conditions,  and  in  sufficient  numbers. 

Teachers'  Institutes  ^ 

*  Teachers'  institutes  have  done  a  great  deal  of  good 

and  are  destined,  as  they  improve,  to  do  a  great  deal 

more.     They  also,  like  most  other  educational  .agencies, 

afford  many  opportunities  for  waste. 

The  whole  subject  of  rural  school  conditions  and  the 
means  of  improving  them  has  only  recently  received  any 
serious  and  wide-spread  attention  from  educational  stu- 
dents and  reformers,  and  the  teachers'  institute  has  suf- 
fered neglect  accordingly. 

State  Control  of  the  Institute. —  It  is  not  wise  for  the 
state  or  its  agents  to  declare  specifically  and  in  detail 
upon  what  topics  and  subtopics  instruction  in  an  institute 
shall  be  given,  as  is  the  case  in  Kentucky  and  Wisconsin 
for  example.  The  State  Board  of  Education  should  have 
power,  however,  to  lay  down  the  general  lines  along 
which  institute  work  should  be  directed,  and  should  have 
the  discretion  to  make  these  lines  broad  enough  not  to 
hamper  the  work  of  well  equipped  instructors. 

In  Mississippi,  Wisconsin,  and  some  other  states,  the 
state  educational  authorities  may  call  a  convention  of  pro- 
fessional institute  instructors,  for  the  purpose  of  reaching 

^Report  of  National  Educational  Association  for  '97:  301;  Circulars  of 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  No.  6,  1888,  and  No.  2,  1889. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  151 

a  common  basis  and  method  of  work.  Such  a  conven- 
tion, under  proper  guidance,  can  do  great  good  and  be 
the  means  of  real  economy.  However,  unless  the  insti- 
tutes use  only  "  home  talent,''  some  instructors  would 
not  get  the  benefit  of  such  a  convention ;  but  it  is  never 
wise  for  any  phase  of  school  work  to  be  administered 
wholly  by  home  talent;  no  state  lines  should  be  drawn 
against  educational  competency. 

Other  states,  as  Illinois  and  Kansas,  license  institute 
instructors  and  thus,  in  some  degree  at  least,  protect  their 
teachers  against  the  inexpert  and  the  ill  equipped. 

Organization  and  Methods  of  the  Institute. —  An  in- 
stitute, to  be  worth  while,  should  continue  through  not 
less  than  three  days;  if  it  can  last  for  ten  or  fifteen,  so 
much  the  better,  other  things  being  equal. 

The  chief  object  of  such  a  meeting  is  to  give  to  the 
whole  corps  of  teachers  professional  inspiration  and  up- 
lift. To  attain  this,  an  instructor  must  be  had  who  him- 
self has  inspiration  and  power ;  the  mere  ''  method  mon- 
ger "  can  not  serve  here. 

But  another  object  is  to  give  the  teachers,  particularly 
the  inexperienced,  specific  help  and  direction  in  the  or- 
ganization and  management  of  a  school  and  in  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  method.  The  failure  to  attain  this 
object  is  the  chief  reason  why  so  often  teachers  go  away 
from  an  institute  feeling  resentfully  that  it  has  been  hazy 
and  unprofitable.  The  specific  work  in  management  and 
method  is  needed  to  anchor  the  inspiration.  If  the  same 
instructor  can  give  both,  well  and  good ;  if  not,  enough  in- 
structors must  be  employed  to  accomplish  these  two  chief 
ends  of  a  teachers'  institute. 

If  an  institute  enrolls  a  large  number  of  teachers,  it 
may  profitably  be  sectioned  into  at  least  two  groups,  the 


152 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 


first  made  up  of  those  who  have  had  only  a  year's  ex- 
perience, or  none;  the  second  made  up  of  all  the  others. 
All  the  teachers  should  meet  together  once  or  twice  daily 
to  hear  the  general  lectures,  but  the  teachers  in  each  sec- 
tion should  be  given  the  technical  instruction  they  es- 
pecially need. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that,  unless  the  institute 
continues  two  weeks  or  longer,  no  academic  instruction 
should  be  attempted,  except  incidentally  and  for  pur- 
poses of  illustration. 

Where  there  is  enough  money,  much  that  is  cultural 
can  and  should  be  provided  for  the  teachers  during  an 
institute.  Popular  lectures  and  popular  music  should  be 
prominent  features. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  is  in  the  direction  of  re- 
quiring teachers  to  attend  institutes  and  paying  them  for 
such  attendance. 

Taking  Notes. —  Teachers  would  receive  far  more 
benefit  from  the  institute  than  is  commonly  the  case  if 
they  would  make  more  use  of  the  note  book.  In  the 
brief  time  of  an  institute  it  is  hardly  feasible  to  do  any 
class  work,  and  therefore  the  lecture  and  the  "  round 
table  "  conference  must  be  used.  The  value  of  these  to 
the  individual  teacher  lies  largely  in  his  ability  to  take 
notes;  but  the  average  teacher  will  not  take  notes,  as  a 
rule,  unless  specially  induced  to  do  so.  It  rests  with  the 
county  superintendent  to  find  the  sort  of  "  inducement '' 
that  will  prove  most  effective. 

The  Institute  and  the  Public. —  The  institute  should 
be  made  one  of  the  points  of  contact  between  the  schools 
and  the  public.     All  general  lectures  upon   educational  * 
themes  should  be  free  to  the  citizens  of  the  community 
where  the  institute  is  held,  and  effective  use  should  be 


*       INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  153 

made  of  every  opportunity  thus  offered  to  show  the  pub- 
lic what  are  present  educational  ideals  and  aims  and  what 
is  being  done  to  realize  them.  The  "  County  Exposi- 
tion"  (see  p.  60),  which  should  be  a  special  feature  of 
the  annual  institute,  is  a  most  valuable  means  of  arous- 
ing public  interest  in  the  work  of  the  schools,  because  it 
is  objective  and  shows  concrete  results. 
Teachers'  Associations 

In  this  country  teachers'  associations  are,  for  the  most 
part,  voluntary  and  unofficial.  But  they  constitute  one 
of  the  best  means  of  quickening  the  professional  spirit 
of  the  teachers,  a  spirit  of  comradeship  in  a  common  work 
and  a  feeling  of  pride  in  doing  that  work  well,  and  they 
therefore  have  an  important  function  in  the  unification 
of  a  state  system  of  schools.  In  addition  to  the  advan- 
tages just  named,  the  county  association  may  follow  the 
example  of  the  national  association  and  do  somewhat  to 
enlarge  the  sphere  of  the  professional  in  education  by  well 
conducted  investigations  and  experiments.  Surely  no 
one  has  a  better  opportunity  for  investigation  of  educa- 
tional problems  than  the  country  teacher;  his  school- 
room is  a  well  stocked  laboratory.  One  of  the  regular 
features  of  the  county  and  state  meetings  of  educational 
associations  should  be  concise  reports  of  the  conditions 
and  results  of  certain  experiments  in  management  and 
method.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  better  way  than 
this  of  fixing  the  attention  of  t'he  teachers  upon  the  cen- 
tral problems  of  their  work. 

Too  often  the  meeting  of  a  teachers'  association  is 
given  over  to  entertainment  features  and  lectures  from 
outsiders.  But  however  good  the  music  and  elocution 
may  be,  and  however  excellent  the  talks  of  the  imported 
educator,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  law  of  self- 


154       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

activity  is  the  law  of  growth  and  applies  to  a  body  of  men 
and  women  as  well  as  to  an  individual.  The  "  pouring- 
in  process  "  is  but  little  better  in  a  meeting  of  teachers 
than  in  a  school.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  teachers 
themselves  should  take  an  active  part  in  the  work  done 
at  county,  district,  or  state  meetings. 

Association  for  Protection. —  In  Great  Britain,  one 
very  important  function  of  the  National  Union  of  Teach- 
ers is  to  protect  the  members  by  securing  the  enforcement 
of  laws.  This  function  has  not  been  assumed  in  this  coun- 
try, except  in  a  few  local  instances,  by  any  educational 
association.  Yet,  the  protection  of  teachers  against  the 
ills  they  are  liable  to  suffer  through  public  indifference 
and  the  selfishness  of  politicians  or  employing  boards  is 
one  of  the  important  benefits  to  be  secured  by  organization. 

Not  only  is  it  feasible  for  teachers,  through  their  as- 
sociations, to  secure  protection  by  enforcement  of  laws 
already  existing,  but  they  could  also  successfully  in- 
fluence legislative  bodies  to  the  enactment  of  laws  favor- 
able both  to  teachers  and  to  the  progress  of  education  in 
general.  If  a^ew  leading  teachers  in  each  state  should 
start  the  organization  of  a  teachers'  federation  or  league 
the  result  would  appear  in  a  greatly  increased  efficiency 
of  school  work.  Wages  would  be  better  and  more  stable, 
certification  would  be  more  uniform  and  of  a  higher  stand- 
ard, stronger  men  and  women  would  therefore  be  drawn 
into  the  profession,  and  the  weak  and  inefficient  would  be 
forced  to  seek  other  work.  These  statements  have  been 
fully  verified  by  the  work  of  the  "  Ohio  Teachers'  Fed- 
eration," organized  in  1902. 

Libraries  and  Reading  Circles 

In  every  state  provision  is  made  by  law  for  libraries 
for  the  use  of  teachers.     Every  county    (or  township, 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  155 

where  the  township  is  the  unit)  should  maintain  a  teach- 
ers' library  made  up  mainly  of  professional  books  and 
periodicals.  This  should  be  the  case  even  in  states  where 
there  are  good  traveling  libraries. 

Use  of  the  Library. —  It  should  be  made  by  law  a  part 
of  the  duties  of  the  county  superintendent  to  take  care 
of  this  library  or  have  it  taken  care  of;  and  he  should 
endeavor  in  every  way  to  keep  the  reading  matter  in 
active  circulation.  Lists  of  new  books  ought  to  be 
posted,  and  published  in  the  local  papers ;  teachers  should 
be  referred  to  the  library  for  material  to  use  in  the  meet- 
ings of  their  association;  the  superintendent  should  call 
the  attention  of  one  or  another  teacher  to  a  book  or  arti- 
cle which  he  believes  would  be  helpful  in  any  particular 
case.  The  careful,  thorough  use  of  a  well  selected  library, 
under  the  sympathetic  direction  of  a  superintendent  who 
knows  both  the  books  and  his  teachers'  individual  needs 
will  show  marked  results  in  improved  management  and 
teaching  throughout  the  county. 

Organization  of  Reading  Circles.^ —  Usually  the  state 
teachers'  reading  circle,  like  the  associations,  has  a  purely 
unofficial  and  voluntary  organization.  The  state  teach- 
ers' association  elects  a  Board  of  Control,  and  each  coun- 
ty association  elects  a  local  manager  or  secretary.  Some 
very  excellent  work  has  been  done  under  such  voluntary 
organization ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  more  work,  and 
more  effective  work,  would  be  done  if  the  state  would 
take  some  authoritative  part  in  the  management  of  the 
reading  circle. 

Although  professional  spirit  and  a  desire  to  improve 
ought  to  be  sufficiently  strong  incentives  to  bring  every 
teacher  into  the  reading  circle  work,  yet  it  is  the  fact  that 

*  See  Report  of  Nat.   Ed.  Association  of  1890,  p.  325. 


156       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

a  much  stronger  one  is  such  credit  for  the  completion  of  a 
course,  as  shall  raise  the  grade  or  rank  of  the  certi- 
ficate. Such  credit  ought  to  be  given  for  completing 
a  definite  amount  of  reading,  but  only  under  the  watch- 
ful direction  of  the  state.  Hence,  it  seems  clear,  the 
reading  circle  work  ought  to  be  under  the  management 
of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  which  should  select 
the  books,  prescribe  the  amount  of  reading,  fix  some  sort 
of  test  to  ascertain  whether  the  requirements  have  been 
met,  and  issue  certificates  of  credit  that  the  holder  may 
present  to  a  local  examining  board  when  applying  for  a . 
certificate. 

Too  many  teachers  read  the  adopted  books  because  it 
seems  to  be  the  thing  to  do,  but  never  make  any  attempt, 
apparently,  to  bring  the  work  of  the  school  room  into 
relation  with  what  they  have  read.  To  correct  this  evil, 
a  place  ought  to  be  given  on  the  monthly  association  pro- 
gram for  a  round-table  discussion  of  the  matter  read 
during  the  month,  and  members  should  be  required  to 
report  on  the  practical  use  they  have  made  of  facts  and 
principles  gathered  from  their  reading.  Also,  if  the 
local  supervision  is  close  and  effective,  superintendents 
and  inspectors  will  see  that  the  teachers  do  apply  in  their 
work  the  best  that  has  been  learned  from  their  reading. 

Results  that  are  worth  while  can  hardly  be  realized 
from  reading  circle  work  unless  some  such  plan  is  fol- 
lowed as  that  outlined  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The 
reading,  done  largely  by  immature  young  people,  will  be 
desultory  and  aimless. 

(e)   State  Control  of  Private  Schools 

There  are  several  problems,  still  unsolved,  or  at  least 
not  everywhere  solved  alike,  which  touch  more  or  less 
closely  the  whole  question  of  the  organization  of  educa- 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  157 

tion  as  a  part  of  the  state's  business.  These  can  be  but 
little  more  than  stated  here. 

Shall  the  state  permit  anyone  to  open  a  school,  who 
secures  a  charter  as  for  other  private  business?  Or 
does  the  state  owe  to  the  young  citizen  who  seeks  school- 
ing some  sort  of  protection  against  educational  quacks, 
as  it  gives  protection  against  medical  quacks? 

Control  of  Degree-conferring  Institutions.^ —  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  do  not  permit  any  institution  to 
confer  degrees  unless  it  has  an  endowment  or  total  hold- 
ings of  $500,000.  Efforts  in  the  same  direction  have 
been  made  in  a  number  of  states  farther  west,  but  have 
failed,  through  popular  protest.  An  academic  degree  has 
a  certain  public  significance  and  commercial  value,  and 
surely  the  state  would  be  quite  as  right  in  protecting  this 
value  as  in  protecting,  for  example,  the  makers  of  honest 
butter. 

Excellent  teaching,  however,  can  be  done  on  less  than 
$100,000  endowment.  It  is  coming  to  be  frankly  recog- 
nized that  often  better  work  is,  in  fact,  done  in  some  of 
the  smaller  and  poorer, institutions  than  in  the  larger  and 
richer;  witness  Jena,  to  take  a  case  away  from  home. 
Therefore  the  money  test  does  not  seem  the  best  to  apply 
when  the  state  is  seeking  to  determine  what  institutions 
may  have  legal  permission  to  grant  degrees.  There  is 
but  one  safe  test,  and  that  is  the  test  of  results.  Let  the 
state  establish  any  standard  of  work  it  may  choose,  deter- 
mine in  what  way  results  shall  be  measured  by  that 
standard,  charge  the  State  Board  of  Education  with  the 
duty  of  carrying  out  the  law  in  the  case,  and  then  grant 
the  authority  to  confer  appropriate  degrees  to  all  insti- 
tutions conforming  to  the  established  standard. 

^Report  of   N.    E.   A.,    1897:    701. 


158       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Control  of   Elementary  and   Secondary   Schools. — 

The  discussion  of  state  control  of  private  schools  has 
been  mainly  concerning  degree-conferring  institutions; 
but  there  is  greater  danger  in  the  uninspected  work  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  conducted  as  private 
enterprises,  than  in  cheap  degrees. 

It  will  doubtless  be  a  long  time  before  public  opinion 
will  come  up  to  the  level  of  a  law  against  the  opening  of 
a  private  school  by  anyone  who  can  hire  a  room  and  find 
pupils  to  put  in  it.  But  the  common  sense  of  the  mat- 
ter seems  to  be  that  if  the  state  assumes,  as  it  does,  the 
right  to  educate,  it  should  fix  the  standard  of  education 
and  require  all  schools  to  conform  thereto.  The  state 
can  not  forbid  private  schools,  but  it  can  justly  exercise 
authority  in  establishing  standards  to  which  all  who  teach 
shall  conform. 

(£)  Pensions  for  Teachers^ 

In  several  of  the  larger  cities  in  this  country  there  are 
voluntary  benefit  associations  of  the  teachers,  which  pay 
a  specified  sum  to  members  who  are  ill  a  certain  length 
of  time,  and,  in  some  instances,  pay  an  annuity  after  a 
long  term  of  service  or  in  case  of  total  disability.  Such 
organizations  do  not  differ  in  principle  from  similar 
ones  in  any  class  of  work.  But  in  a  few  states  these 
teachers'  benefit  associations  are  organized  under  special 
laws,  and  each  teacher  is  assessed  a  small  per  cent  of 
monthly  salary  in  order  to  supply  the  benefit  fund.  Cali- 
fornia provides  pensions  for  all  teachers  who  accept  the 
provisions  of  the  state  law  creating  a  retirement  fund 
by  reserving  one  per  cent  of  the  salary,  and  who  shall 
have  become  incapacitated  after  twenty  years  of  service. 

»     *  Reports  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  1894-5,  i:  1079;  1895-6,  2:  i343; 
1898-9,  2:   1478. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  159 

To  such  a  law  as  this,  or  to  voluntary  benefit  associations, 
no  objection  can  be  offered.  But  to  reserve  any  part  of  a 
teacher's  salary  without  his  consent,  as  was  formerly  done 
in  the  larger  cities  of  Ohio,  or  to  create  a  pension  fund  by 
state  appropriations,  as  is  suggested  in  several  quarters, 
is  a  wholly  different  matter. 

It  is  an  open  question  whether  the  state  or  anyone  act- 
ing by  its  authority,  has  a  right,  under  any  circumstances, 
to  take  from  the  teacher  a  part  of  his  salary  to  go  into 
a  general  teachers'  benefit  fund.  This  is  compulsory 
insurance,  and  also  involves  the  wider  question  of  civil 
pensions,  against  which  the  sentiment  of  this  country 
has  so  far  been  strong. 

B.    The  City  System 
(a)  The  Board  of  Education^ 

Selection  and  Organisation 

It  is  the  earnest  desire  of  every  friend  of  American 
schools  that  they  should  be  free  from  political  partisan- 
ism,  nepotism,  and  all  other  forms  of  "  pull "  and 
"  graft."  It  is  worth  every  effort  to  keep  boards  of  ed- 
ucation free  from  these  taints.  Various  experiments  to 
this  end  have  been  made,  of  which  none  has  proved 
wholly  successful.  Those  yielding  most  favorable  re- 
sults indicate  the  following  as  necessary  precautions  in 
the  selection  and  organization  of  boards  of  education: 
(i)  the  board  should  be  small,  consisting,  even  in  the 
largest  cities,  of  not  more  than  fifteen  members;  (2) 
there  should  be  some  sort  of  qualification  for  member- 
ship, based  upon  either  property  or  intelligence,  or  upon 


E 


^  See  **  Report  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  Chicago  "  (1899),  Chi- 
cago University  Press;  New  York  Independent  56:  416;  **  School  Adminis- 
tration in  Municipal  Government,"    (Pollins)   Macmillan  Co. 


l6o       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 

both;  (3)  the  term  of  office  should  be  long;  (4)  the  selec- 
tion of  members  should  be  by  election  at  large,  instead 
of  by  wards. 

Size  of  the  Board. —  A  city  board  of  education  is  an 
executive,  rather  than  a  representative  and  deliberative 
body.  It  should,  therefore,  be  small  so  that  business  may 
be  dispatched  quickly  and  smoothly.  The  tendency  in 
this  country  to  make  such  boards  elective  and,  like  other 
elective  bodies,  representative,  has  resulted  in  making 
them  too  unwieldy,  in  many  instances,  to  do  rapid  and 
effective  work. 

Qualification  of  Members. —  Persons  who  are  to  be 
responsible  for  a  proper  expenditure  of  money  in  so  im- 
portant a  matter  as  the  schools  of  a  community  should  be 
required  to  show  some  special  fitness  for  the  trust.  The;^ 
should  be  persons  of  business  capacity,  as  evidence  of 
which  they  should  be  owners  of  property,  to  a  certain 
amount,  in  the  community  electing  them.  They  should 
also  be  resident  householders  in  the  city  whose  educa- 
tional interests  they  are  to  serve. 

The  Term  of  Office. — "  Short  terms  and  rotation  in 
office "  is  another  popular  political  phrase  that  has  no 
valid  application  to  the  administration  of  a  system  of 
schools.  It  would  be  well  to  have  a  six-year  term  of 
office,  with  elections  only  every  two  years,  at  which  a 
number  equal  to  one  third  of  the  total  number  of  mem- 
bers should  be  chosen;  and  members  should  be  eligible 
to  reelection.  A  man  or  woman  who  renders  efficient  and 
unselfish  service  as  a  member  of  the  board  of  education 
should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  render  that  service  to 
the  community  so  long  as  he  or  she  is  willing  to  do  so. 
There  could  be  no  objection  to  such  an  arrangement,  if 
the  people  would  understand,  and  act  upon  the  knowl- 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  i6l 

edge,  that  the  schools  must  never  be  used  for  political 
or  personal  exploitation. 

Mode  of  Selection. —  In  some  communities  it  has  been 
found  that  appointment  by  the  mayor,  or  other  respon- 
sible official,  gives  better  results  than  election  by  popular 
vote.  But  any  argument  that  is  valid  against  the  popular 
election  of  members  upon  a  board  of  education  is  equally 
valid  against  the  idea  of  democratic  government.  The 
American  ideal  is  that  the  people  shall  choose  those  who 
are  to  do  the  people's  business.  If  the  popular  selection 
of  a  board  of  education  should  conform  to  the  following 
general  plan  there  would  probably  be  a  minimum  of 
evil  in  the  results :  ( i )  candidacies  to  be  announced  and 
members  to  be  selected  upon  educational  issues   only; 

(2)  the  names  of  candidates  to  be  proposed  by  some 
definite  number  of  property  owners  and  householders; 

(3)  the  election  to  be  at  large,  and  not  by  wards;  (4) 
the  voting  to  be  at  a  special  election,  if  possible,  so  that 
"  politics  "  may  be  minimized.^ 

Salaries. —  The  question  as  to  whether  members  of  a 
school  board  should  receive  salaries  is  not  at  present  a 
very  pressing  one.  The  weight  of  custom  and  theory 
is  against  it;  and  in  only  one  city,  San  Francisco,  has 
payment  of  large  salaries  to  members  of  the  school  board 
been  tried.  The  results  there  are  too  indecisive,  ap- 
parently, to  tempt  other  cities  to  a  like  experiment. 

Organization. —  Following  each  election  of  members, 
the  board  should  organize  by  putting  one  of  the  newly 
elected  members  in  the  chair,  to  serve  there  for  one  year. 
The  experience  of  older  members  is  more  valuable  on  the 
floor  than  in  the  chair.  The  board  should  be  permitted, 
under  the  law,  to  elect  a  salaried  secretary,  and,  in  large 

^  See  Educational  Review,  20:   69,  and  13:  232. 
Roark's  Econ. — II 


l62       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

cities,  a  salaried  business  agent,  who  should  be  required 
to  give  bond. 

The  fewer  committees  there  are,  the  better.  The  fol- 
lowing are  enough,  namely,  one  on  finance,  as  an  estimat- 
ing and  auditing  committee ;  one  on  buildings  and  sanita- 
tion ;  and  a  third  on  complaints  and  petitions.  The  whole 
board  should  serve  as  a  committee  on  appointment  of 
teachers,  arrangement  of  courses  of  study,  and  selection 
of  text-books,  but  in  these  matters  should  have  only  ad- 
visory and  confirmatory  power,  the  responsibility  being 
left  to  rest  upon  the  superintendent. 

Functions  of  the  Board 

The  functions  of  a  board  of  education  should  be 
mainly  financial  and  directive.  It  should  appoint  its 
agents,  confirm  subordinate  appointments  made  by  these 
agents,  receive  bequests,  and  hold  and  dispose  of  prop- 
erty in  its  corporate  name. 

Among  a  board's  most  important  powers  should  be 
(i)  levying  a  school  tax;  (2)  exercise  of  the  right  of 
eminent  domain  in  the  acquirement  of  school  sites; 
(3)  defining  in  a  general  way  the  regulations  of  the 
schools,  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  school  officials, 
and  the  content  of  the  course  of  study. 

Levying  Tax. —  In  some  instances  a  school  board  has 
the  right  to  levy  the  school  tax  direct,  without  regard  to 
the  city  council.  In  others,  the  board  can  hand  in  to  the 
council  an  estimate  of  the  sum  necessary  to  sustain  the 
schools  for  a  year,  and,  if  this  sum  does  not  exceed  that 
which  can  be  raised  from  a  certain  percentage  of  tax 
upon  the  property  owners,  the  latter  body  is  required  by 
law  to  allow  the  estimate.  This  arrangement  is  usu- 
ally found  to  be  more  satisfactory  than  the  first,  as  it 
eliminates  conflicts  of  authority. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  163 

Eminent  Ddmain. —  One  of  the  most  important  recom- 
mendations of  the  Chicago  Educational  Commission  was 
that  a  city  school  board  should  have  the  right  of  eminent 
domain,  whereby  to  acquire  land  upon  which  to  erect 
school  buildings.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  the 
larger  cities  where  population  is  congested,  and  real  es- 
tate owners  are  loath  to  sell.  The  necessity  for  giv- 
ing to  a  school  board  the  power  to  purchase  land  by 
condemnation  proceedings  becomes  more  and  more  evi- 
dent as  it  is  more  clearly  realized  how  much  location  and 
floor  space  have  to  do  with  the  health,  comfort,  and  good 
work  of  the  pupils. 

Regulations. —  The  regulations  under  which  any  busi- 
ness is  administered  should  be  as  few  and  as  simple  as 
possible.  In  the  case  of  a  system  of  schools  the  only 
rules  needed  are  such  as  define  in  the  broadest  terms  the 
responsibilities  of  the  superintendent  and  his  corps,  the 
duties  of  the  janitors,  and  the  adjustment  of  such  special 
matters  as  may  be  dependent  upon  local  conditions.  The 
policy  of  the  board  should  be  to  outline  broadly  the  work 
of  the  employes,  and  then  to  allow  them  great  freedom  in 
attaining  the  results  for  which  they  are  held  responsible. 

The  Courses  of  Study  and  Text-books. —  The  rela- 
tions of  the  school  board  to  the  courses  of  study  should 
be  of  the  most  general  character.  The  board  should, 
because  of  lack  of  expert  knowledge,  do  no  more  than 
determine,  in  consultation  with  the  superintendent,  the 
general  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  schools.  To  the  super- 
intendent and  his  corps  should  be  left  the  details  of  ar- 
rangement and  the  methods  of  teaching. 

The  same  attitude  should  be  taken  by  the  board  with 
reference  to  text-books.  The  board's  duty  is  simply  to 
protect    the    users    of    the   books    against    too    frequent 


l64       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

changes,  and  against  too  high  prices.  Beyond  this,  the 
selection  of  books  should  be  left  to  those  who  will  teach 
from  them. 

(b)  The  Superintendent 

Qualifications. —  The  prime  requisites  which  a  school 
board  should  find  in  the  person  it  proposes  to  elect  to 
the  superintendency  are  successful  experience  in  graded 
school  work,  executive  power,  eminent  scholarship,  broad 
culture,  and  proved  character. 

A  superintendent  should  have  at  least  a  college  educa- 
tion, and  should  be  endowed  with  forceful  and  magnetic 
personality. 

Term  of  Office. —  It  is  well  to  elect  the  superintendent 
for  one  probationary  year,  and,  if  his  work  is  good,  to 
reelect  him  for  a  second  trial  year.  If  his  service  im- 
proves during  the  second  year,  he  should  then  be  elected 
for  an  indefinite  term,  under  a  contract  terminable  on  the 
part  of  the  board  only  upon  proved  charges  of  unfitness. 

Privileges  and  Responsibilities. —  The  superintendent 
should  be  privileged  to  select  his  principals  and  teachers, 
subject  to  confirmation  by  the  board.  It  would  not  be 
wise  to  place  the  selection  of  the  teaching  corps  wholly 
in  the  superintendent's  hands,  and  it  is  even  more  un- 
wise to  have  the  appointment  of  teachers  entirely  under 
the  control  of  the  board.  A  safe  balance  between  the 
two  dangers  may  be  formed  by  giving  to  the  superin- 
tendent the  power  of  nomination  of  teachers,  and  to  the 
board  the  power  of  confirming  nominations. 

To  the  superintendent  also,  as  an  educational  expert, 
should  be  left  the  details  of  the  course  of  study,  the  as- 
signment of  work  to  individual  teachers,  and  the  methods 
of  instruction.     The  superintendent  should  be  rigorously 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  165 

held  responsible  for  the  professional  efficiency  of  the 
schools,  and  it  is  just  to  place  responsibility  only  where 
there  is  commensurate  freedom  of  action. 

The  selection  of  the  books  and  apparatus  by  which  the 
teachers  are  to  carry  out  the  course  of  study  should  be 
left  to  the  superintendent  and  his  corps  of  principals. 

The  fact  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  and  con- 
stantly carried  into  practice,  that  the  board's  concern  is 
with  the  business  side  of  school  affairs,  and  the  super- 
intendent's concern  is  with  the  successful  working  of  the 
schools  as  educational  agencies.  He  should  be  able  to 
infuse  vitality  and  coherence  into  the  system  as  a  whole, 
and  be  able  to  inspire  his  teaching  corps  with  an  en- 
thusiastic willingness  to  work  in  the  execution  of  his 
large  plans. 

(c)  The  Principals 

The  qualifications  of  a  principal  should  be  the  same  in 
kind  as  those  of  the  superintendent,  namely,  sound  schol- 
arship, the  training  of  experience,  and  a  positive  and 
attractive  personality. 

The  place  of  principal  should  be  made  as  secure  as  that 
of  superintendent,  the  same  precautions  having  been 
taken  to  test  fitness. 

By  the  same  reasoning  as  in  the  case  of  the  superin- 
tendent it  seems  clear  that  the  principal  should  be  con- 
sulted in  the  selection  of  the  teachers  for  the  school  of 
which  he  has  charge.  The  superintendent  should  pay 
close  heed  to  the  recommendations  of  the  principal  as  to 
the  fitness  and  unfitness  of  teachers. 

Should  Appoint  Janitors. —  It  has  been  suggested,  and 
with  excellent  reason,  that  with  the  principal  should  be 
left  the  selection  of  the  janitor,  subject  only  to  confirma- 
tion by  the  board  of  education.     Such  an  arrangement 


l66       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

would  still  further  lessen  the  temptation  and  opportunity 
of  the  board  to  use  the  appointing  power  for  political  or 
personal  ends.  The  janitor  is  so  large  a  factor  in  the 
comfort  and  health  of  a  school,  in  the  preservation  of 
order  and  decency,  and  in  the  smooth  running  of  school 
affairs,  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure  such 
harmony  between  him  and  the  principal  and  such  w^illing- 
ness  of  service,  as  can  be  obtained  only  by  havifig  the 
principal  exercise  both  immediate  and  final  authority  over 
him. 

Constitute  an  Educational  Council. —  The  principals, 
in  all  but  the  largest  cities,  where  district  superintend- 
ents are  needed,  should  constitute  the  superintendent's 
professional  council.  Acting  with  him  they  should  in- 
itiate and  carry  out  such  plans  as  will  best  economize 
time,  teaching  force,  and  pupil  energy. 

Although  the  principals  have  to  deal  more  with  de- 
tails than  the  superintendent  does,  yet  they  also  should 
leave  to  the  teachers  the  largest  possible  measure  of  in- 
dividual liberty.  After  principles  have  been  laid  down 
and  'the  ends  to  be  reached  have  been  defined  with  needed 
particularity,  the  teachers  should,  for  the  most  part,  be 
allowed  to  apply  these  principles  and  attain  these  ends 
in  their  own  way.  Originality  of  work  not  only  should 
be  allowed  but  should  be  sympathetically  encouraged.^ 

(d)  The  Teachers 

The  difficulty  which,  more  than  any  other,  blocks  the 
efficiency  of  the  public  schools,  is  that  the  people  do  not 
realize  the  need  of  teachers  who  can  teach.  And  the 
reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  there  is  not  and 

1  Refer  to  Report  of  National  Educational  Association,  1901:  280,  et  seq., 
and  to  the  Superintendents'  Round  Tables  in  other  issues  of  the  Report; 
Also  to  the  files  of  the  American  School  Board  Journal,  Milwaukee. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS  167 

can  not  be  any  accurate  measure  of  results  of  teaching 
and  in  the  further  fact  that  these  results  may  so  easily 
be  vitiated,  or  improved,  by  agencies  and  influences 
wholly  outside  the  teacher's  control.  In  consequence, 
people  have  fallen  into  thinking  that  anyone  who  can 
pass  an  examination  can  be  a  teacher,  and  so,  since  all 
certificated  persons  are  alike  as  to  teaching  ability,  why 
not  let  the  needy  girl,  the  struggling  youth,  the  poor 
widow,  the  superannuated  clergyman,  or  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  the  local  politicians  have  the  places  and 
draw  the  pay?  Why  not  carefully  keep  the  places  for 
"home  talent?" 

To  help  to  a  better  condition  of  school  affairs  than 
that  to  which  this  state  of  the  popular  mind  always  leads, 
the  law  should  provide  ( i )  for  the  certification  of  teach- 
ers by  expert  examiners  wholly  disconnected  with  the 
schools ;  (2)  for  their  appointment  by  the  superintend- 
ent; (3)  for  permanent  tenure  of  office;  (4)  for  suffi- 
cient pay,  and  a  uniform  scale  of  salaries  based  upon 
skill  and  length  of  service. 

Certification. —  An  examining  board  should  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  board  of  education,  composed  of  persons 
who  are  expert  educators,  but  who  have  no  connection 
with  the  schools  whose  teachers  they  shall  examine.  To 
secure  such  a  board  non-residents  may  have  to  be  ap- 
pointed, but  this  would,  doubtless,  be  another  advantage 
of  the  plan. 

It  should  always  be  understood  that  the  applicants  for 
certificates  may  come  from  any  place,  and  that  health, 
age,  scholarship,  character,  and  skill  will  be  the  only 
qualifications  considered.  ~" 

This  examining  board,  not  the  board  of.  education, 
should  have  authority  to  accept  diplomas  or  certificates 


l68       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

from  other  sources  in  lieu  of  the  results  of  its  own 
examinations. 

Appointment. —  As  said  in  a  previous  paragraph,  the 
teachers  should  receive  their  appointment  from  the  super- 
intendent, who  will,  if  he  is  wise,  take  counsel  of  his  prin- 
cipals and  of  others  who  can  help  him  make  good  selec- 
tions. His  interest  in  making  good  appointments  is  both 
professional  and  personal,  and  is  much  deeper  than  that 
of  the  school  board  could  be.  His  ability  to  judge  of  an 
applicant's  fitness  for  appointment,  although  by  no  means 
infallible,  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  board. 

As  said  above,  however,  a  balance  should  be  main- 
tained by  leaving  in  the  hands  of  the  board  the  privilege 
of  confirming  or  rejecting  the  superintendent's  appoint- 
ments.^ 

Tenure  of  Office. —  The  public  school  teacher  who  does 
good  work  should  be  secure  in  her  position.  After  one 
or  two  years  of  probation  under  close  supervision,  if 
the  result  of  the  trial  is  satisfactory,  the  teacher's  tenure 
of  place  should  be  made  permanent;  which  means,  at 
least,  that  she  should  not  be  subjected  to  a  yearly  election. 

Scale  of  Pay. —  To-day  sociologists  are  urging  the 
claim  of  the  hand  laborer  to  a  wage  not  based  upon  mere 
supply  and  demand  in  the  labor  market,  but  upon  the 
laborer's  needs  and  rights  as  a  man.  Such  a  claim  could 
be  far  more  strongly  urged  in  the  case  of  the  teacher,  who 
deals  with  the  things  of  the  spirit,  and  who  must  spend 
money  constantly  upon  self-enrichment  and  the  means 
of  intellectual  and  cultural  growth,  in  order  to  give:  good 
service  to  the  state.     The  teacher  must  receive  not  only 

^  Every  applicant  should  be  required  to  present  a  physician's  certificate  of 
physical  fitness. 


INTERRELATION  OF  SCHOOL  UNITS.  169 

"  a  living  wage  "  but  one  that  may  also  buy  food  for  the 
soul. 

As  in  other  occupations,  so  in  teaching,  the  pay  should 
be  proportioned  to  skill,  capacity,  and  length  of  service. 
Under  such  an  arrangement,  a  successful  primary 
teacher  might  receive  better  pay  than  a  high  school  prin- 
cipal. 

Some  day  the  fact  will  be  realized  by  the  real  employer, 
the  public,  that  the  best  teachers  that  can  be  secured 
should  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  lower  grades  and  paid 
handsomely  for  laying  sound  and  safe  foundations. 

Another  reason  for  more  liberality,  which  is  the  truest 
economy,  in  the  payment  of  teachers,  is  found  in  the 
rapidly  growing  demand  for  men  teachers  in  the  grades, 
and,  under  the  present  organization  of  society  at  least, 
more  money  must  be  paid  in  order  to  secure  men  teach- 
ers. 

The  Teacher's  Liberty. —  The  need  of  allowing  to 
principals  and  teachers  great  liberty  in  the  carrying  out 
of  general  plans  has  already  been  more  than  once  sug- 
gested. It  can  not  be  too  often  affirmed.  Those  who 
do  the  actual  work  of  teaching  should  be  allowed  the 
greatest  possible  freedom  for  the  play  of  personality,  the 
strongest  force  with  which  a  teacher  can  be  endowed,  and 
should  be  held  accountable  for  rqsults.  There  can  be  no 
sound  objection  to  allowing  teachers  also  the  liberty  of 
suggestion  and  criticism.  The  same  good  results  may 
be  expected  from  the  allowance  of  such  liberty  in  a  school 
system  as-  in  factories,  and  in  the  latter  the  results  have 
always  been  good,  when  the  employes  have  been  invited 
to  make  suggestions  looking  to  the  increased  efficiency 
of  the  plant. 

The  grade  teacher  sees  things  from  a  view  point  which 


170 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 


is  in  the  nature  of  things  more  intimate  than  that  of 
either  principal  or  superintendent.  She  is,  therefore,  in- 
a  position  to  give  intelHgent  and  sympathetic  criticism 
of  the  inner  working  of  the  schools,  and  should  be  in- 
vited to  do  so  candidly. 

Such  criticism  and  suggestion  may  sometimes  be  of- 
fered in  the  general  teachers'  meetings,  or  to  the  prin- 
cipal or  the  superintendent  as  opportunity  is  given.  But, 
to  secure  unreserved  frankness,  written  and  unsigned 
criticisms  should  be  permitted.  If  the  right  spirit  is 
shown  in  the  matter  by  the  principal  and  the  superintend- 
ent, there  need  be  no  fear  whatever  of  anonymous  malice 
or  scandal  mongering. 

(e)  School  Visitors 

One  of  the  best  recommendations  made  by  the  Chicago 
Educational  Commission  was  that  the  mayor  of  the  city 
should  appoint  a  committee,  or  committees,  of  citizens 
who  are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  schools,  and  whose 
business  it  should  be  to  visit  and  carefully  to  inspect  the 
schools,  reporting  results  to  the  board  of  education.^ 
Such  a  committee,  made  up  of  intelligent  and  responsible 
citizens,  examining  the  material  equipment  and  work  of 
the  schools,  judging  of  these  from  a  standpoint  outside 
of  the  school  system,  and  reporting  its  observations  and 
conclusions  directly  to  the  school  board,  would  be  of  the 
highest  service  to  public  education  in  any  city.  The 
plan  of  a  committee  of  this  kind  has  been  proposed  for 
Boston  also,  and  is  already  effective  in  New  York  and 
in  Atlanta.  In  the  latter  city  the  committee  of  visitors 
is  made  up  wholly  of  women. 

(f)  The  City  Teachers'  Training  School 

The  pressing  need  of   a  sufficient  supply  of  trained 

^  See  Report  of  Chicago  Educational   Commission,  p.    167. 


THE  CURRICULUM  171 

teachers  in  the  larger  cities  has  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  teachers'  training  school  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
city  school  system.  The  wisdom  of  this  is  open  to  ques- 
tion. Even  granting  that  the  training  given  in  these 
schools  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  still  they  must  tend 
to  strengthen  the  general  demand  that  "  home  talent " 
be  given  preference  when  teachers  are  to  be  employed ; 
and  they  tend,  further,  to  an  educational  "  in-and-in 
breeding ''  that  is  very  undesirable.  The  city's  schools, 
like  its  other  enterprises,  public  and  private,  should  draw 
to  their  service  the  best  intelligence  and  skill  from  every 
quarter,  and  nothing  should  be  permitted  to  stand  in  the 
way  of  getting  the  best. 

The  teachers'  training  school  will  doubtless,  for  sev- 
eral reasons,  continue  to  be  a  part  of  the  school  system 
in  every  large  city,  but  its  disadvantages  should  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  and  it  should  be  used  rather  to  maintain  a 
certain  standard  of  fitness  than  merely  as  a  source  of 
supply.  It  should  be  made  to  feel  the  sharp  competition 
of  state  teachers'  training  schools,  and  college  depart- 
ments of  education. 

(2)  THE  CURRICULUM 

A  few  years  ago  courses  of  study  were  administered 
without  any  particular  question  about  them.  The  cur- 
riculum for  each  kind  of  school,  elementary,  secondary, 
and  higher,  was  single  and  definite.  Now,  even  the  ele- 
mentary schools  are  coming  to  vie  with  one  another  in 
variety  of  studies  and  diversity  of  courses.  The  curricu- 
lum is  the  one  most  discussed  thing  in  school  economy 
to-day. 

It  will  facilitate  the  treatment  of  the  subject  if  some 
basic  principles  can  be  formulated  and  adhered  to.  These 
principles  should  be  valid  for  all  phases  and  modifications 


172 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 


of  formal  education,  private  or  public,  elementary,  sec- 
ondary, and  higher. 

A.  Making  the  Curriculum 
(a)  Principles  Fundamental  to  the  Curriculum 
Definitions  Involved. —  Education  has  been  classed  as 
formal  and  informal;  and  the  formal  phases  of  it  as  for- 
mative and  reformative.  The  question  here  is  with  re- 
gard to  formative  education ;  but  it  may  be  said  at  this 
point  that  modern  reformative  educational  influences  are 
more  and  more  closely  following  the  methods  of  forma- 
tive education. 

Formal    education    is    a    process   tending    continually 

toward  the  realization  of  its  highest  aim  —  the  happiness 

of  the  individual  in  the  betterment  of  the  social  whole} 

The  curriculum  and  its  administration  are  the  chief 

factors  in  this  process. 

Too  Much  Individualism. —  Plainly  the  demand  so  in- 
sistently made  up  to  times  quite  recent,  that  teaching 
shall  be  individual,  has  been  misinterpreted  and  the  ef- 
forts made  to  meet  it  may  easily  do  harm.  The  demand 
originated  in  a  realization  of  the  inadequacy  of  mass 
teaching,  handling  children  in  large  groups  and  all  alike, 
and  so  failing  to  recognize  and  reach  the  personality  of 
each.  But  the  matter  of  individuality  was  so  empha- 
sized that  the  sociological  ends  of  education  were  lost 
sight  of,  and  one  result  has  been  individualism  gone  to 
seed  and  ripening  as  selfishness.  Only  psychologically 
is   the   curriculum   for   the   individual;    sociologically   it 

1 N.  Y.  Teachers'  Monograph,  Oct.  1901,  pp.  i,  no,  120,  et  seq.; 
Fouillee's- "  Education  from  a  National  Standpoint";  LeConte's  "Evolution 
and  Education,"  Ed.  Rev.  10:  130,  et  seq.;  Guyau's  "Education  and  Hered- 
ity," Contemporary  Science  Series;  Young's  "  Isolation  in  the  School,'* 
University  of  Chicago  Press;  Dewey's  "The  School  and  Society,"  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 


THE  CURRICULUM  173 

should  be  altruistic  and  civic.  The  course  of  study  must' 
reveal  to  the  pupil  the  material  and  social  world  in  which 
he  lives,  and  his  own  relation  to  it,  making  clear  his 
duties  and  privileges  and  holding  up  before  him  service 
as  his  highest  and  most  permanent  ideal.  It  is  now  de- 
manded  that  schools  shall  not  merely  give  information, 
but  shall  make  society.  Upon  precisely  this  idea  of  the 
socialization  of  the  individual  hinges  one  of  the  latest 
phases  of  educational  discussion. 

The  Curriculum  both  Sociological  and  Psycholog- 
ical.—  So  much  being  true,  the  curriculum  must  embody 
the  things  that  will  best  develop  the  individual  as  such, 
and  also  fit  him  for  his  functions  as  a  social  factor.  This 
is  to  say  that  the  curriculum  must  be  planned  both  psy- 
chologically and  sociologically. 

In  the  laws  of  social  growth  and  in  the  modes  of  the 
individual's  contact  with  society,  as  well  as  in  psychology, 
must  be  sought  guidance  as  to  what  shall  constitute  the 
curriculum;  in  the  laws  of  physical  and  mental  growth 
and  in  the  modes  of  the  mind's  activities  must  be  sought 
the  ways  of  fitting  the  curriculum  to  the  individual. 

Justification  of  Public  Education. —  Before  it  is  de- 
termined what  shall  be  the  subject-matter  of  the  course 
of  study  the  question  must  be  answered,  as  far  as  public 
education  is  concerned,  "  What  justifies  education  at  pub- 
lic expense,  what  is  the  excuse  for  levying  this  heavy 
tribute  upon  the  public  purse  ? '' 

There  can  be  but  one  answer  to  this,  and  that  is,  "  The 
state  has  no  right  to  undertake  the  work  of  universal 
education  except  as  a  measure  of  protection,  perpetua- 
tion, and  improvement  to  the  state ;  the  product  of  public 
education  must  be  good  citizenship."  If  this  answer  is 
true,  it  is  true  for  all  grades  of  schools  and  applies  with 


174       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

equal  force  to  the  public  kindergarten  and  to  the  state 
university. 

The  Unity  of  Educational  Processes. —  To  work  in 
conformity  with  the  principle  here  laid  down  will  be  to 
bring  into  harmony  and  coherence  with  one  another,  about 
a  common  core  of  organization,  the  curriculums  of  the 
several  schools  in  a  state  system.  And  if  the  state  is  to 
supervise  private  schools,  they  also  will  have  to  adopt 
the  same  principle  as  vital  to  the  right  doing  of  their 
work.  Dewey  rightly  says/  that  the  problem  of  the 
curriculum  is  first  intellectual  and  then  practical,  and  that 
"  intellectually  what  is  needed  is  a  philosophy  of  organ- 
ization, a  view  of  the  organic  unity  of  the  educative 
process  and  educative  material,  and  of  the  place  occupied 
in  this  whole  by  each  of  its  parts."  To  hold  steadfastly 
to  this  idea  of  the  "  organic  unity  of  educative  process 
and  educative  material,"  the  oneness  of  the  curriculura 
through  school  and  college,  is  to  be  saved  from  the  con  • 
fusion  now  found  in  the  relations  of  the  elementary 
school  to  the  high  school  and  of  the  high  school  to  the 
college.  Neither  will  be  thought  of  as  solely  preparatory 
to  or  dependent  upon  the  others,  but  each  will  be  rightly 
related  to  the  other  through  the  relation  of  all  to  the 
common  purposes  of  education.  If  each  faces  the  social 
highway  along  which  its  students  must  travel,  then  each 
will  be  rightly  oriented  to  the  others. 

On  this  subject  of  the  oneness  of  "  educational  con- 
struction "  President  Eliot  has  said  r^  "...  I  wish 
to  affirm  and  illustrate  the  proposition  that  the  chief  prin- 
ciples and  objects  of  educational  reform  are  quite  the 
same  from  beginning  to  end  of  that  long  course  of  edu- 

^  Educational  Review,  22 :  47. 
2  Educational     Review,    8:    210. 


THE  CURRICULUM  175 

cation  which  extends  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  to  the  twenty- 
fifth  or  twenty-sixth  year  of  Hfe." 

What  is  Good  Citizenship? — Before  making  up  a 
curriculum  which  shall  conform  to  the  requirement  just 
given,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  what  are  the  elements 
of  good  citizenship. 

One  mark  of  a  good  citizen  is  that  he  renders  to  the 
community  a  just  equivalent  for  all  he  receives  from  it. 
He  must  not  do  less ;  he  may  do  more.  He  has  the  ca- 
pacity for  productive  labor  of  muscle  or  mind,  and  suffi- 
ciently strong  motives  to  impel  him  to  use  it.  No  matter 
how  good  a  man  may  be  as  an  individual,  he  is  not  a  good 
citizen  unless  he  is  able  to  make  an  honest  living  for  him- 
self and  for  those  dependent  upon  him.  He  is  neither 
a  good  man  nor  a  good  citizen  if,  having  capacity,  he  is 
too  lazy  or  too  dishonest  to  apply  it  rightly,  and  under- 
takes, whether  as  a  beggar,  a  thief,  or  an  idle  millionaire, 
to  get  a  living,  and  more,  from  the  community  without 
giving  equivalent  service. 

But  a  man  may  come  up  to  the  full  measure  here  indi- 
cated, and  still  fall  short  of  the  best  citizenship.  Another 
mark  of  a  good  citizen  is  that  he  shall  gladly  do  some- 
what for  the  community  zvithout  expectation  or  desire  for 
personal  return;  there  must  be  a  willingness  to  spend  self 
in  order  to  add  to  the  sum  total  of  help  and  happiness  for 
humanity. 

All  that  has  been  said  in  the  attempt  to  define  the  good 
citizen  applies  to  the  woman  as  well  as  to  the  man.  A 
woman's  service  to  the  public  may  be  the  same  as  a  man's, 
or  it  may  be  diflferent ;  her  highest  service  unquestionably 
is  different.  But  if  the  community  is  richer,  materially 
or  spiritually,  because  she  lives  in  it,  then  the  woman  is 
a  good  citizen,  otherwise  not. 


176       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Substance  of  the  Curriculum. —  In  the  light  of 
the  conclusions  so  far  drawn,  the  curriculum  of  the  public 
schools  must  contain  wherewith  (i)  to  cultivate  in  the 
young  citizen  a  capacity  to  do  something  the  world  needs 
done,  and  (2)  to  stir  his  ambition  and  strengthen  his  will 
to  do  if.  Whatever  else  the  curriculum  contains,  it  must 
provide  for  equipping  those  upon  whom  it  is  wrought 
out  with  the  ability  to  work  intelligently  and  skillfully, 
and  the  teaching  must  fill  them  with  a  sense  of  their  pro- 
found obligation  to  work  —  to  work  not  merely  with 
the  purpose  to  make  a  living,  but  to  serve  the  social 
whole. 

The  content  of  the  curriculum,  that  is  to  say,  its  sub- 
stance, must  provide  knowledge  of  physical  and  social 
environment,  and  the  means  of  cultivating  the  capacity 
and  purpose  of  the  pupil  both  to  adapt  himself  to  this 
environment  and,  especially,  to  adapt  this  environment  to 
his  owniiigher  life,  and  so  to  the  life  of  his  fellows.^ 
The  Sociological  Aspect  of  the  Curriculum. 

The  subjects  for  which  place  must  be  made  in  the 
curriculum  in  obedience  to  societary  demands  are  (i) 
science,  (2)  manumental  training,  (3)  arithmetic,  (4) 
history,  including  geography  and  civics,  (5)  language 
and  literature,  (6)  physical  culture.  These  are  the  sub- 
jects which  the  state  has  a  right  to  put  into  the  curricu- 
lum of  its  schools  for  purposes  of  utility  and  self-pro- 
tection. 

Science. —  One  phase  of  man's  progress  in  civilization 
is  measured  by  his  ability  to  discover  and  use  the  facts 
and  laws  of  nature.  In  proportion  as  he  reduces  all 
phenomena  of  the  inorganic  and  the  organic  worlds  to 

1  See  "Education  as  Adjustment,"  O'Shea;  "The  Psychic  Factors  of 
Civilization,"  Ward;  Eliot's  "Educational  Reform,"  pp.  151,  303;  Hanus's 
**  Educational    Aims   and    Educational   Values,"   pp.    i,   43. 


THE  CURRICULUM  177 

order  and  law,  he  emerges  from  the  darkness  and  paraly- 
sis of  superstition.  The  men  who  have  gained  the  keen- 
est insight  into  the  processes  of  nature  and  have  most 
succeeded  in  reducing  these  to  formulas  have  done  the 
highest  material  and,  in  many  cases,  also  the  highest 
spiritual  service  to  mankind. 

The  child,  therefore,  as  a  factor  of  constantly  increas- 
ing value  in  the  social  whole,  must  be  made  acquainted 
with  his  material  environment  and  its  basic  laws 

Two  good  results  to  the  social  whole,  to  mention  no 
more,  of  the  right  use  of  science  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum, especially  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
are  ( i )  the  increased  contentment  of  the  country  dweller 
to  remain  in  his  environment,  using  and  enjoying  it;  and 
(2)  the  introduction  of  a  centrifugal  force  into  congested 
urban  centers,  by  showing  people  how  farm  and  garden 
and  forest  may  be  made  to  pay  in  both  money  and  health. 

Manumental  Training. —  The  term  "  manumental  "  is 
used  in  order  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  real  function 
of  the  manual  training  furnished  by  other  than  special 
trade  schools  must  be  primarily  educative.  The  purpose 
is  not  merely  to  train  the  hand  to  work  skillfully,  impor- 
tant as  that  is,  but  to  reach  the  mind  through  the  training 
of  the  hand  as  an  instrument  of  acquisition  and  of  ex- 
pression. 

The  term  is  used  here  also  with  a  wider  meaning  than 
has  attached  to  "  manual."  Under  it  is  included  all 
forms  of  school  work  with  materials  of  any  kind,  kinder- 
garten occupations,  drawing,  modeling,  sewing,  and  cook- 
ing, work  in  wood  and  metal  and  school  gardening. 
"  Manumental  training "  means  all  school  employments 
that  typically  represent  or  reproduce  the  material  con- 
structive and  productive  activities  of  society. 

Roark's  Econ. — 12 


178       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

The  plainest  fact  upon  which  a  sociologicial  argument 
for  manumental  training  in  the  curriculum  can  be  rested 
is  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  world's  work  must 
always  be  done  directly  or  indirectly  with  hands,  and  the 
better  trained  the  hands  are  the  better  will  the  work  be. 
The  professions  enroll  only  about  ten  per  cent  of  those 
who  are  engaged  in  gainful  occupations,  and  of  the  re- 
mainder but  five  per  cent  have  had  any  school  training 
whereby  they  were  specially  fitted  for  the  particular  work 
they  are  trying  to  do.  Even  of  the  ten  per  cent  of  pro- 
fessional workers,  there  are  many,  surgeons,  dentists, 
scientists,  painters,  and  sculptors,  who  need  for  their 
work  special  skill  of ,  hand.  Only  within  very  recent 
years  have  the  glaring  injustice  and  the  social  waste  of 
making  more  provision  in  the  public  schools  for  the  five 
per  cent  than  for  the  ninety-five  begun  to  be  recognized. 

If,  as  was  said  above,  an  essential  element  of  good  citi- 
zenship is  the  ability  to  make  an  honest  living,  and  most 
honest  livings  are  made  with  the  hands,  then  society  has 
a  right  to  demand  that  the  training  of  hands  shall  be  a 
function  of  the  public  school.  Then,  too,  the  great  indus- 
tries are  justified  in  demanding  as  a  social  right  that  the 
schools  shall  give  the  alphabet  of  the  crafts  and  arts, 
even  as  they  have  so  long  given  the  alphabet  of  the  pro- 
fessions. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  most  of  the  manumental 
training  afforded  by  public  schools  in  this  country  to-day 
is  confined  to  the  high  schools,  and  that  only  about  five 
per  cent  of  the  school  population  ever  get  into  the  high 
schools  at  all,  the  necessity  at  once  becomes  evident  that 
this  form  of  training  must  have  a  place  in  the  elementary 
schools. 

Another  and  higher  value  of  manumental  training  in 


THE  CURRICULUM  179 

the  public  schools  is  its  democratizing  influence.  Instead 
of  making  class  or  caste  differences  more  distinct  and 
permanent,  as  was  once  argued  by  its  opponents,  it  serves 
to  bring  the  so-called  superior  social  class  into  intelligent 
sympathy  with  the  hand  worker,  and  gives  to  the  hum- 
blest pupil  the  self-respect  and  the  self-confidence  that 
invariably  mark  him  who  can  do  something  skillfully. 
The  man  in  broadcloth  can  not  seem  so  far  removed, 
socially,  from  the  man  in  overalls  if  as  boys  the  two 
worked  at  the  same  bench  and  with  the  same  tools.  No 
man  who  has  worked  skillfully  with  his  own  hands  can 
ever  look  down  upon  the  hand  craftsman;  the  man  who 
has  had  only  mental  training  frequently  does. 

As  one  reads  the  discussions  of  manual  training  as 
reported  in  the  various  educational  meetings  throughout 
this  country,  he  must  be  impressed  by  the  unanimity 
with  which  the  subject  is  handled  as  a  sort  of  inducement 
for  keeping  boys  longer  in  school.  In  these  discussions 
the  girls,  their  continuing  in  school,  their  share  in  social 
service,  their  adaptation  to  present  and  future  environ- 
ment, seem  to  be  considered  but  slightly,  or  wholly  ig- 
nored. Happily,  the  practice  is  better  than  the  preaching, 
in  many  instances,  and  not  a  few  elementary  schools  pro- 
vide for  instruction  and  practice  in  sewing,  cooking,  and 
other  forms  of  domestic  arts,  while  many  higher  institu- 
tions are  at  last  practically  recognizing  their  duty  by 
offering  sound  courses  in  both  the  domestic  sciences  and 
the  domestic  arts. 

General  Walker  has  said  with  characteristic  vigor, 
•*  America  is  suffering  from  two  great  curses,  indigestion 
and  alcoholism,  both  due  to  .  .  .the  inability  of  the 
women  in  the  middle  and  lower  classes  to  prepare  whole- 
some and  nourishing  food.'' 


i8o       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

What  particular  type  of  constructive  activity  shall  re- 
ceive most  attention  in  any  given  locality  or  section  must 
depend  upon  the  circumstances  environing  the  school. 
In  agricultural  communities  the  school  must  help  to  show 
the  intelligent,  scientific  side  of  farming;  in  industrial 
regions  the  emphasis  may  be  placed  upon  tool  work; 
where  there  are  mines,  attention  should  be  paid  to  miner- 
alogy and  the  elements  of  mining  engineering. 

Arithmetic. —  Arithmetic,  the  art  of  measuring  and 
comparing  quantities,  is  fundamental  in  all  societary  oc- 
cupations, and  only  in  its  applications,  to  these  has  it  any 
particular  value  in  the  curriculum.  Both  the  public  and 
schoolmen  are  slow  to  recognize  this  fact,  and  so  to  this 
day  much  that  is  archaic  and  worse  than  useless  persists 
in  the  arithmetic  of  the  schools;  as  often  taught  it  de- 
serves the  name  of  the  "  Moloch  of  the  curriculum." 

History,  including  Geography  and  Civics. —  Every 
one  in  an  American  community  has  the  privilege,  and  in 
this  case  duty  is  commensurate  with  privilege,  of  aiding 
in  directing  the  political  activities  and  in  determining 
the  influence  of  the  social  institutions  of  town,  state,  and 
nation.  To  do  these  things  wisely,  with  economy  of 
effort  and  the  avoidance  of  costly  experiment,  a  knowl- 
edge of  what  has  been  attempted  in  other  times  and  places 
is  necessary.  A  proper  appreciation  of  the  civic  errors 
of  the  past,  an  appreciation  becoming  dynamic  in  motive 
and  action,  would  prevent  the  continual  municipal  mis- 
rule so  characteristic  of  large  American  cities.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  had  the  generation  which  came  to 
manhood  and  womanhood  in  the  United  States  in  the 
'So's  been  well  grounded  in  Greek  history  and  its  political 
lessons,  the  Civil  War  might  have  been  averted.  A  thor- 
ough study  of  four  centuries  of  Rome  might  have  pre- 


THE  CURRICULUM  l8l 

vented  the  French  Revolution.  The  civilized  nations  of 
the  world,  in  making  some  recent  history,  have  set  les- 
sons the  learning  of  which  will  do  away  with  war  alto- 
gether. 

But  at  the  very  core  of  each  great  world  movement 
there  is  a  personality ;  biography  is  the  soul  of  history.  To 
put  before  the  young  the  life  histories  of  men  and  women 
who,  in  heroic  endeavor,  self-sacrifice,  and  utter  devotion 
to  the  public  good  in  war,  in  political  service,  in  pure  re- 
ligion, in  medical  research,  in  social  betterment,  have 
wrought  mightily  for  their  fellows  and  for  posterity,  is 
to  provide  for  the  still  higher  and  more  complete  social- 
ization of  human  energy,  for  that  exalted  altruism  which 
is  to  be  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Along  with  the  history,  if  it, is  to  have  body  and  sub- 
stance, must  go  geography.  But  to  make  history  sub- 
stantial by  giving  to  each  event  its  local  habitation  is  only 
one  use  of  geography,  or,  rather,  is  the  use  of  but  one 
kind  of  geography.  Physiography  and  commercial  geog- 
raphy are  also  societary  subjects,  because  a  knowledge 
of  them  is  needed  by  those  who  are  to  take  an  active 
part  in  either  the  production  or  distribution  of  the  world's 
necessaries  and  luxuries,  and  is  equally  needed  by  those 
whose  business  it  may  be  to  make  laws  for  the  control  of 
production  and  distribution. 

Civics. —  The  theory  and  practice  of  citizenship  is 
applied  history,  and  aS  a  subject  in  the  curriculum  should 
be  so  presented  as  to  furnish  the  young  citizen  both  with 
the  knowledge  of  his  duties  and  how  to  discharge  them 
rightly,  and  with  a  noble  inspiration  to  make  his  work  in 
the  community  contribute  richly  to  its  higher  life. 

Language  and  Literature. —  Good  work  in  all  subjects 
depends,  of  course,  upon  some  knowledge  of  language. 


i82        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

With  respect  to  their  social  value  language  and  literature 
are  not  to  be  studied  so  much  for  their  direct  as  for  their 
indirect  importance.  There  is  nothing  politically  anti- 
septic about  the  alphabet;  the  fourth  reader  is  no  anti- 
dote for  social  poisons.  Only  lately  have  we  begun 
to  recover  from  the  idea  that  the  three  R's  by  some  inher- 
ent virtue  hold  healing  for  political,  social,  and  moral  ills. 

Letters  are  but  the  vehicle  of  the  inspiration  contained 
in  literature ;  except  as  reading  leads  to  high  ideals  and 
conduct  conformed  to  them,  it  is  socially  worthless  or 
harmful. 

Physical  Training. —  A  nation  rightly  demands  that 
its  soldiers  shall  come  up  to  a  certain  measure  of  physical 
fitness.  A  community,  town,  state,  or  nation  has  an  equal 
right  to  demand  that  all  its  citizens  be  given  such  train- 
ing as  to  equip  them  with  power  to  resist  disease  and  suc- 
cessfully to  stand  the  expenditure  of  the  physical  energy 
necessary  to  discharge  fully  all  their  duties  as  citizens. 
If  communities  could  but  realize  the  wisdom  of  spending 
as  much,  proportionally,  in  producing  a  physically  sound 
and  competent  citizenry  as  in  taking  care  of  defective 
classes  and  individuals,  there  would  soon  be  much  less 
need  than  now  appears  for  almshouses  and  asylums  for 
the  insane  and  the  imbecile.  At  this  point  sound  peda- 
gogy again  makes  demands  upon  sociology  and  political 
economy,  and  urges  that,  through  the  legal  suppression 
of  all  forms  of  objective  temptation  to  vice,  the  schools 
be  given  a  fair  chance  to  do  their  perfect  work  upon  the 
young,  giving  them  sound  and  wholesome  bodies  as  well 
as  clean  minds. 

The  Psychological  Aspect  of  the  Curriculum. 

As  said  earlier,  the  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter 
of  the  curriculum  must  be  psychological,  following  the 


THE  CURRICULUM  183 

natural  order  in  which  the  growing  mind's  activities  man- 
ifest themselves,  and  so  adjusted  to  these  activities  as  to 
reenforce  them  and  bring  them  to  their  best  expression. 
The  history  and  literature  of  education  afford  few  exam- 
ples of  trustworthy  inductive  experimentation  in  basing 
educational  processes  upon  psychology,  and  until  much 
inductive  experimentation  is  done  these  processes  must 
be  haphazard  and  fall  short  of  full  fruitfulness. 

Three  Operations  Known. —  It  is  clear  enough,  how- 
ever, that  at  the  age  when  the  child  enters  school  the  mind 
functions  in  its  three  operations  of  acquisition,  assimila- 
tion, and  expression}  Facts  and  experiences  must  be 
acquired,  must  come  into  consciousness,  before  they  can 
arouse  feeling  and  thought,  and,  if  expression  is  anything 
more  than  the  automatic  play  of  sensation  and  motor 
responses,  feeling  and  thinking  must  precede  expression, 
or,  as  Holbrook  better  calls  it,  "  self-externalization/' 

The  conclusion  from  this  is  that  the  acquisitive  powers, 
the  senses  and  memory,  should  first  be  given  active  and 
gratifying  employment  through  objective  work;  the  in- 
herent assimilative  powers,  already  highly  active,  should 
be  directed  by  deft  questions  or  suggestions  (oral  and 
objective),  and  the  irrepressible  tendency  to  express 
by  speech  and  motor  activity  should  be  given  constant 
encouragement  and  freedom  of  opportunity.  Any  given 
exercise  in  school  should  be  so  planned  as  to  evoke  all 
these  activities,  though  not  necessarily  all  in  equal  de- 
gree. 

There  should  be  at  every  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress 
through  school  life  acquisitional,  assimilational,  and  ex- 
pressional  exercises  and  studies  provided  in  the  curricu- 
lum. 

^  Ro3rk's   "  Psychology  in   Education,"   pp.    155-264. 


l84        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

But  the  powers  of  acquisition,  assimilation,  and  expres- 
sion do  not  all  develop  in  even  measure  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  early  days  the  acquisitive  powers  are  most  active ; 
in  later  youth  and  early  middle  life  the  assimilative  lead, 
although  the  acquisitive  are  still  growing;  and  later  still 
the  expressive  powers,  if  development  has  been  normal, 
reach  a  maximum. 

The  application  of  this  to  the  arrangement  of  the  cur- 
riculum demands  that  in  the  elementary  schools  the  em- 
phasis be  placed  relatively  upon  acquisition  of  funda- 
mental facts ;  in  the  secondary  schools  upon  assimilational 
activity;  and  in  the  higher  institutions  upon  expressional 
activity. 

That  is  to  say,  in  the  elementary  school  the  aim  should 
be  to  provide  the  pupils  with  the  alphabets  of  the  differ- 
ent departments  of  human  knowing,  being,  and  doing, 
to -lay  broad  and  deep  ground  plans  in  the  acquisition  of 
the  fundamentals  of  knowledge,  in  the  formation  of  the 
moral  habits,  and  in  the  beginnings  of  that  skillful  adjust- 
ment of  word  and  deed  to  thought  and  feeling  which 
shall  mark  the  competent  and  cultured  man  and  woman. 

In  the  high  school  and  college,  doing  their  work  in  the 
adolescent  and  early  adult  periods,  the  aim  should  be  so 
to  balance  freedom  for  the  student's  individual  initiative 
with  the  teacher's  directive  and  stimulating  influence  as 
to  secure  the  most  effective  activity  of  the  powers  of  inde- 
pendent thinking.  The  result  of  the  work  of  the  second- 
ary school  should  be  that  the  student  "  finds  himself " 
and  can  stand  alone,  with  power  to  use  his  equipment. 

The  distinctive  function  of  the  university  should  be 
specialization,  putting  the  edge  of  skill  upon  the  blade  of 
power,  fitting  the  man  or  woman  to  do  easily  and  econom- 
ically some  one  thing  thoroughly  well. 


THE  CURRICULUM,  185 

Psychological  and  Social  Values. —  In  skillful  hands 
almost  any  subject  can  be  made  to  yield  excellent  results 
of  a  purely  psychological  value;  but  the  facts  upon 
which  the  acquisitive  powers  are  exercised  may  be  of  no 
value,  the  combinations  and  relations  which  call  forth 
assimilative  activity  may  have  no  application  to  the  needs 
of  either  the  individual  or  society,  and  the  forms  of  ex- 
pression may  be  such  as  to  unfit  the  individual  for  react- 
ing upon  his  environment  or  for  adapting  it  to  his  needs. 
The  absurdities  of  the  scholasticism  of  the  middle  ages 
bear  abundant  testimony  to  the  truth  of  these  statements. 

There  are  subjects  of  deep  human  interest  that  are 
suffused  with  the  beauty  and  glory  of  what  the  race  has 
been  and  is,  what  it  has  accomplished  and  what  it  is  ac- 
complishing now;  and  these  subjects  have  a  right  to  a 
place  in  the  curriculum  for  both  sociological  and  psycho- 
logical reasons.  Of  these,  literature  in  its  broad  mean- 
ing, the  history  of  other  peoples,  and  the  arts  of  form  and 
music  rank  first  in  importance. 

There  are  still  other  subjects  which  are  more  remotely 
social  and  more  directly  psychological  than  those  just 
named.  These  may  be  grouped  under  the  wide  term 
philosophy,  and  their  chief  value  lies  in  liberalizing,  that 
is,  freeing,  the  mind,  and  in  making  of  it  a  more  efficient 
instrument  of  work.  In  so  far  as  this  latter  aim  is 
reached,  philosophy  too  becomes  a  distinctly  social  subject,. 

All  these  subjects,  in  their  various  forms,  are  usually 
called  the  "  culture  studies."  It  is  as  right  that  they 
should  have  places  in  the  course  of  study,  and  largely  for 
the  same  reasons,  as  that  the  schoolhouse  should  have 
beauty  of  architectural  finish,  or  that  pictures  should  hang 
on  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom.  They  are  psycholog- 
ically valuable  because  they  give  power  and  poise,  culti- 


l86        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

vate  the  emotions,  and  train  the  reason.  They  are  socially 
valuable  because  they  redeem  society  from  crass  utilita- 
rianism and  materialism. 

Guyau,  in  "  Heredity  and  Education,"  says,  "... 
whatever  is  really  conformable  to  the  highest  good  of  in- 
dividual life  (moral  and  physical)  is  from  that  very  fact 
useful  to  the  whole  race."  If  this  is  true  at  all,  it  is  true 
because  man  is  a  social  being,  and  what  is  not  good  for 
society  is  not  good  for  him  as  a  part  of  society. 

But  it  is  safer  to  state  Guyau's  proposition  conversely. 
Rather  should  it  be  said  that  whatever  is  found  to  be  a 
fit  subject  to  meet  societary  demands  upon  the  curriculum 
can  be  so  handled  as  to  meet,  in  the  main,  psychological 
demands. 

There  follows  a  brief  summary  of  the  working  con- 
clusions reached  upon  this  point: 

Judged  from  the  psychic  and  socio-psychic  standpoints 
any  subject,  to  deserve  a  place  in  the  curriculum,  must 
show  one  or  more  of  three  values,  utilitarian,  disciplinary, 
and  cultural.  It  must  be  directly  useful  to  the  individ- 
ual and  to  society,  or  it  must  have  special  power  to 
strengthen  and  train  some  capacity  or  capacities  of  the 
mind,  or  it  must  prove  itself  a  means  through  which  may 
be  acquired  that  indefinable  but  very  real  something  called 
culture. 

Science  Has  All  Three  Values. —  Science,  put  first  on 
a  preceding  page  in  the  list  of  subjects  having  social  sig- 
nificance, has  all  the  values  named  above.  The  utility  of 
science  was  the  basis  of  its  earliest  claim  to  recognition 
and  rank  in  the  curriculum.  But  its  advocates  were  im- 
mediately put  upon  the  defensive  by  the  counter  conten- 
tion that  science  is  not  disciplinary  and  especially  is  not 
cultural.     It  is  not  intended  to  reopen  here  the  old  quarrel 


THE  CURRICULUM  187 

between  the  classics  and  the  sciences.  The  sciences  are 
in  the  curriculum  permanently,  but  the  results  have  been 
somewhat  disappointing  to  both  parties  to  the  contro- 
versy. The  utility  of  science  has  been  demonstrated ;  its 
disciplinary  power  is  becoming  more  evident  daily,  as  we 
learn  better  how  to  teach  it;  only  in  its  cultural  quality 
does  it  seem  to  fall  short  of  the  highest  claims  made  for  it. 
But  that  it  has  this  quality  is  shown  by  the  addresses  and 
writings  of  Huxley,  for  example,  whose  every  utterance 
was  marked  by  the  lucidity,  sincerity,  poise,  and  polish 
that  are  the  most  important  attributes  of  culture.  Un- 
fortunately, too  many  scientists  and  teachers  of  science 
seem  indifferent  to  the  culture  value  of  science,  or  are 
even  proud  of  their  inability  to  bring  it  out  in  their  teach- 
ing. When  science  shall  have  been  in  the  curriculum  for 
as  long  a  time  as  the  classics  occupied  first  place  there, 
and  its  methodology  shall  have  been  as  carefully  worked 
out,  its  worth  as  an  instrument  of  liberal  education  will 
be  manifest. 

The  case  for  the  culture  side  of  science  is  well  stated 
by  the  editor  of  one  of  the  chief  literary  magazines  when 
he  says:  "...  there  are  no  other  things  [than 
science]  of  so  far-reaching  suggestiveness,  no  other 
things  of  such  imaginative  use  in  relation  to  our  thought 
concerning  questions  of  the  greatest  moment  and  inter- 
est." 

Manumental  Training. —  Twenty  years  ago  the  con- 
tention over  manual  training  was  nearly  as  fierce  as  that 
over  the  sciences.  Now,  as  in  the  case  of  scientific  study, 
the  utilitarian  and  disciplinary  values  of  manual  training 
are  known  of  all  men ;  its  ethical  and  cultural  values 
are  becoming  evident.^ 

^  One  of  the  strongest  presentations  yet  made  of  the  psychological  value 


i88       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Those  who  derided  the  idea  of  a  "  carpenter  shop  in 
the  school ''  for  the  most  part  granted  the  bread  and  but- 
ter utiHty  of  manual  training,  but  could  see  in  it  no  gen- 
uinely educative  value.  It  has,  however,  been  shown  that 
in  addition  to  its  service  as  a  training  in  exactness  it  also 
in  a  marked  degree  increases  general  power  and  efficiency 
through  its  development  of  sensory  and  motor  areas  in 
the  brain  which  would  otherwise  not  be  made  to  function.^ 
Furthermore,  the  varied  exercises  of  manumental  train- 
ing afford  outlet  for  the  motor  activities,  which  are  highly 
important  forms  of  expression  and  which  under  prevail- 
ing school  usages  are  suppressed  instead  of  being  directed 
and  trained. 

Culture  Value  of  Manumental  Training. —  ^Esthetic 
appreciation  and  aesthetic  skill  are  among  the  marks  of 
culture,  and  these  manumental  training,  used  as  it  can  be 
and  should  be,  will  always  give.  The  art  side  of  manual 
work  is  a  side  constantly  needing  emphasis.  Construc- 
tive work  in  the  school  should  always  strive  to  express 
not  only  utility  but  beauty  as  well.^  It  is  further  claimed 
by  those  who  have  tested  the  matter,  that  manumental 
training  has  a  distinct  and  positive  moral  value.^ 

Arithmetic.^ —  What  psychological  value  arithmetic  has 
is  in  its  disciplinary  effects.  These  are  much  less  than 
has  long  been  supposed,  as  President  Eliot  has  so  forcibly 

of  manual  training  is  that  found  in  the  series  of  five  articles  by  Professor 
Henderson,    in   the    Popular    Science   Monthly,   Vol.    53. 

^  "  Is  Manual  Training  a  subject  or  a  method  of  instruction?"  Ed.  Rev. 
27:  369;  Davis,  "  Researches  in  Cross  Education,"  Studies  from  Yale  Psycho- 
logical Lab.,  Vol.  6,  1898;  same  subject,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  March,  1900;  Report 
of  Nat.  Ed.  Association  for  1901:  759;  "From  Fundamental  to  Accessory, 
etc."  Pedagogical  Seminary,  6:  25;  the  conclusions  of  these  writers  have, 
however,  been  called  in  question;  see  Dexter,  "  Survival  of  the  Fittest  in 
Motor-Training,"    Ed.    Rev.    23:    81. 

^Report  of  National  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  '95—6,  2:  1321,  et  seq. 

*  Report  of  National   Educational   Association,    1901:   270. 


THE  CURRICULUM  .  189 

pointed  out.  He  has  said :  "  From  one  sixth  to  one 
fourth  or  even  one  third  of  the  whole  school  time  of 
American  children  is  given  to  the  subject  of  arithmetic, 
a  subject  which  does  not  train  a  single  one  of  the  four 
faculties  to  develop  wjiich  should  be  the  fundamental 
object  of  education.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  observing 
correctly,  or  with  recording  accurately  the  results  of  ob- 
servation, or  with  collating  facts  and  drawing  just  con- 
clusions therefrom,  or  with  expressing  clearly  and  forci- 
bly logical  thought.  Its  reasoning  has  little  application 
in  the  great  sphere  of  the  moral  sciences,  because  it  is 
necessary  and  not  probable  reasoning.  In  spite  of  the 
common  impression  that  arithmetic  is  a  practical  subject, 
it  fs  of  very  limited  application  in  common  life,  except  in 
its  simplest  elements.  .  .  .  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
it  is  the  least  remunerative  subject  in  elementary  educa- 
tion as  now  conducted.^ 

The  chief  value  of  arithmetic,  being  its  every-day  util- 
ity, is  therefore  social.  Of  culture  value  it  is  almost 
wholly  destitute.  In  spite  of  these  facts,  which  have  been 
widely  recognized  in  a  theoretical  way,  a  pedagogically 
discredited  arithmetic  still  holds  its  prominent  place  in 
the  curriculum  and  in  the  affections  of  examiners. 

History,  with  Geography  and  Civics. —  These  three 
subjects  are  grouped  together  because  they  should  be 
taught  and  studied  together  or  in  close  relation.  History 
without  geography  has  no  substance;  geography  without 
history  is  barren  and  without  spiritual  content.  Civics 
rests  upon  history,  and  civic  progress  and  'civic  duty  can 
best  be  understood  only  through  history. 

The  value  of  history  and  civics  is  psycho-social,  and  is 
to  be  found  in  their  power  to  arouse  race  and  national 

*  Forum   14:  421-2;   see  also  the  Chicago  Teachers'  "Arithmetic  Creed." 


I90        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

(social)  instincts  in  the  individual.  They  set  going  socio- 
motive  forces.  It  is  in  their  power  to  enrich  and  exalt 
the  inner  life,  the  spiritual  nature,  that  the  purely  psycho- 
logical value  of  history  and  civics  consists.  These  sub- 
jects make  their  appeal  to  imagina4;ion  and  the  philosophic 
judgment.  They  stimulate  assimilative  activity  and  make 
character. 

Language  and  Literature. —  Because  language  is  the 
chief  instrument  of  thought  and  the  principal  vehicle  of 
expression,  it  is  of  the  highest  psychological  value,  both 
disciplinary  and  cultural.  Exactness  of  thought,  preci- 
sion and  adequacy  of  expression,  and  the  creation  of  noble 
ideals  are  the  best  psychological  results  of  the  right  use 
of  language  and  literature  in  the  curriculum. 

Drawing  and  Music. —  Drawing  has  disciplinary 
value,  because  of  its  direct  training  of  eye  and  muscle; 
and  as  a  medium  of  expression  it  is  also  cultural. 

Music  trains  one  of  the  most  important  senses  to  fine- 
ness of  discrimination;  and  it  enriches  culture  by  giving 
enjoyment  and  by  affording  full  expression  to  feelings 
which  would  otherwise  be  dumb. 

(b)  Outline  of  the  Curriculum 

The  generic  and  abstract  statements  of  the  preceding 
pages  find  specific  and  concrete,  and,  it  is  hoped,  practical, 
illustration  and  exemplification  in  the  following  tentative 
courses  of  study  for  the  different  stages  of  the  educational 
ascent.  The  fact  is  kept  in  mind  that  the  curriculum 
should  be  essentially  one  throughout.  The  curriculum 
below  the  university  should  be  made  up  of  the  type  studies 
selected  from  the  social  and  psychological  groups, 
forming  in  their  aggregate  that  body  of  knowledge  and 
source  of  power  which  every  educated  man  or  woman 
must  have  to-day  in  order  to  be  in  sympathetic  touch  with 


THE  CURRICULUM 


191 


all  phases  of  the  world's  work,  and  in  order  best  to  do 
some  of  that  work. 

For  the  Elementary  School 
A  suggestive  course  of  study  for  the  rural  school  is 
given  in  detail  on  p.  30.  It  is  readily  adaptable  to  the 
requirements  of  a  city  school,  no  more  variation  being 
needed  than  would  be  needed  to  adjust  the  course  to  dif- 
ferent rural  communities.  In  every  case,  whether  in 
city  or  country,  the  stress  should  be  laid  upon  such  studies 
and  exercises  as  will  best  fit  the  pupil  to  take  an  active, 
intelligent,  reciprocal  part  in  the  higher  life  and  progress 
of  his  own  community. 

For  the  Secondary  School  ^ 

The  discussion  of  the  high  school  has  for  some  time 
centered  about  the  question  whether  it  should  "  prepare 
for  college  or  prepare  for  life.''  The  decision,  so  far  as 
one  has  been  reached,  seems  to  be  that  it  should  do  both. 
If  it  can  not  serve  both  purposes  through  one  curriculum, 
then  more  than  one  must  be  provided.  Many  pupils  who 
enter  the  high  school  do  not  go  to  college  afterward, 
because  of  lack  of  desire  or  lack  of  means  and  opportu- 
nity. Many  more  than  now  enter  the  high  school  would 
avail  themselves  of  a  course  of  practical  utility,  if  such 
were  offered.  This  is  found  to  be  true  in  every  instance 
where  a  high  school  has  offered  courses  directly  fitting 
pupils  for  business  or  an  industrial  vocation. 

It  is  neither  difficult  nor  unduly  expensive  to  provide 
high-school  courses  for  differing  needs,  if  the  principle 
be  kept  in  mind  that  all  educational  agencies  have  the 

^Uniform  Course  of  Study  of  Indiana,  1901—02:  183;  The  School  Review, 
2:  379,  11:  I,  and  12:  545;  Regents'  Bulletin  No.  501,  1900  (Albany, 
N.  Y.),  p.  122;  Pedagogical  Seminary,  9:  63;  Atlantic  Monthly,  94:  368; 
The  Educational  Review,  16:  15;  Hanus's  **  Educational  Aims  and  Edu- 
cational  Values." 


192       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

same  fundamental  purpose,  that  all  should  be  oriented 
to  the  common  highway  of  life.  And  the  matter  will  be 
further  simplified  if  the  colleges,  realizing  that  their  chief 
function  is  to  develop  power  rather  than  to  specialize, 
will  accept  graduates  from  any  of  the  high-school  courses, 
except,  perhaps,  such  as  are  strictly  technical. 

The  following  arrangement  of  studies  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  interrelations  and  differences  of  the  courses 
of  the  high  school: 

Branches  Pursued  by  All  During  First  Two  Years. 

Year  i. 

Latin  5.^ 

Algebra  5. 

Rhetoric  with  essay  practice  3,  and  forensics  I. 

Botany   5    (with   free-hand  drawing). 

Manual    Training^  2   (with  mechanical  drawing). 

Vocal  Music  i  (with  practice  at  opening  exercises). 

Gymnasium   i. 

Latin  5. 

Algebra  5. 

Rhetoric  with  essay  practice  3,  and  forensics  i. 

Geology  5    (with  free-hand  drawing). 

Manual  Training  2  (with  mechanical  drawing). 

Vocal  Music,  as  above. 

Gymnasium   i. 

Latin  5. 

Geometry  3,  alternating  with  Algebra  2. 
CO        American  Literature  3;  essays  and  forensics  i. 
g  \      Botany  5   (with  free-hand  drawing). 

Manual  Training  2   (with  mechanical  drawing). 

Vocal  Music,  as  above. 

Gymnasium   i. 

1  Figures    following   a    subject    show    the    number    of    exercises    per   week. 
*  **  Manual   Training  "   includes  "  Domestic  Training  "   for   girls. 


THE  CURRICULUM  193 

^     .  ^Year  II. 

Latin  5. 

Geometry  3,  alternating  with  Algebra  2. 

American  Literature,  as  above. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy  5  (with  free-hand  drawing). 

Manual  Training  2  (with  mechanical  drawing). 

Essays  and  forensics,  based  on  Am.  Hist.  i. 

Vocal  Music,  as  above.  ^ 

Gymnasium  i. 

Latin  5. 

Geometry  5. 

American  Literature  3.  "" 

American  History  2. 

Physics  5. 

Manual    Training    2    (with    free-hand    and    mechanical 

drawing). 
Essays  and  forensics  i. 
Vocal  Music,  as  above. 
Gymnasium  i. 
Latin  5. 
Geometry  5. 
American  Literature  3. 
American  History  2. 
Physics  5. 
Manual    Training    2    (with    free-hand    and    mechanical 

drawing). 
Essays  and  forensics,  as  above. 
Vocal   Music,  as  above. 
Gymnasium,    i. 

'^r      .    I  Year  hi.  . 

LlassicaL  Scientific. 


H 


"  Latin  2,  German  3. 
Greek  5.  »-; 

Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2.        £ 
Plane  Trigonometry  5. 
Forensics  i. 
Latin  2,  German  3. 
Greek  5. 

Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 
Solid  Geometry  5. 
Library  research  i. 
Forensics  i. 
Roark's  Econ. — 13 


German  3,  French  2, 
Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 
Plane  Trigonometry  5. 
Physics  5. 
Forensics  i. 

'German  3,  French  2. 
Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 
Solid  Geometry  5. 
Chemistry  5. 
Forensics   i. 


194 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 


S 
H 


Latin  5. 

German  5. 

Greek  5. 

Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist. 

Library  research  i.^ 

Forensics  i. 


German  5. 

French  5. 

Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 

Chemistry  5. 

Surveying  2. 

Forensics  i. 


u 


g. 


Commercial.  % 

German  3,  Spanish  2. 
Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 
Commercial  Geog.  3. 
Arith.  2. 
Grammar  5. 
Forensics  i. 

German  3,  Sp.  2. 
Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist  2. 
Commercial  Geog.  3. 
Arith.  2. 

Commercial      law      and 
commercial  statistics  5. 
Forensics  i. 

German  3,  Sp.  2. 
Eng.  Lit.  3,  Eng.  Hist.  2. 
Commercial  law  5. 
Polit.    Econ.    and    Com- 
mercial Hist.  5. 
Forensics  i. 


Technical  and  Industrial. 


German  3. 
Drawing  2. 
Physics  5. 
Sol    Geom.  5. 
Shop  work  7.* 
Forensics  i. 


German  3. 
Drawing  2. 
Chemistry  5. 
Analytics  5. 
Shop  work  7. 
-Forensics  i. 


'German  5. 

Chemistry  5. 

Drawing  5. 

Shop  work  10.^ 
.Surveying  2. 


Classical. 

Latin  2,  French  3. 
Greek  5. 
German  5. 
Psychology  5. 
Gen.  Hist.  2. 
.Forensics   i. 


Year  iv. 


Scientific. 
French  5. 
Physiology  5. 
German  5. 
Psychology  5. 
Gen.  Hist.  2. 
-Forensics  i. 


*  This  should  take  much  time  in  preparation,  but  only  one  period  a  week 
for  reporting  results. 

*  This   includes   "  Domestic    Science  "    for   girls. 


THE  CURRICULUM 


195 


Latin  2,  French  3. 
Greek  5. 
German  5. 
Element.  Sociol.  3. 
Gen.  Hist.  3. 
Forensics  i. 

Latin  2. 
French  5. 
German  5. 
Greek  5. 

Gen.  Hist.  3,  with  much 
collateral  library  work. 
Logic  3. 
Forensics  i. 


B 

u 

<U 


CO 


French  3. 
Zoology  5., 
German  5. 
Element.  Sociol.  3. 
Gen.  Hist.  3. 
.Forensics  i. 

French  5. 

German  5. 

Zoology.  5. 

Library      research      and 

Science  Seminar  2. 
Logic  3. 
Forensics  i. 


Commercial. 


Technical  atid  Industrial, 


ro 


Spanish  5. 
Stenography  5. 
German  5. 
Business  composition  and 

forms  3. 
Forensics  i. 

Spanish  5. 

Stenography  5. 

Commercial  Arith.  and 
Bookkeeping  5. 

Typewriting  and  Spell- 
ing 5. 

Forensics  i. 

Stenography  5. 

Spanish  5. 

German  5. 

Commercial  Arith.  and 
Bookkeeping  5. 

Typewriting  and  Spell- 
ing 5. 

Drill  in  use  of  modern 
office  facilities  2. 

Forensics  i. 


Mechanics  5. 

Desc.  Geom.  3. 

Drawing  2. 

Shop  work  10. 

Bus.  Comp.  and  forms  3. 


Heat  5. 
Desc.  Geom.  3. 
Drawing  and  Design  5. 
Shop  work  10. 
^  Study  of  Materials  2. 


Electricity  and  Magnet- 
ism 5. 

Shop  work  10. 

Study  of  Materials  2. 

Drill  in  use  of  modern 
office  facilities  2. 

Drawing  and  designing  5. 


196       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

It  is  believed  that  the  general  scheme  of  secondary 
studies  above  outlined  is  adaptable  to  the  purposes  and 
functions  of  the  high  school  in  the  country,  in  the  smaller 
towns,  and  in  the  large  cities.  A  rural  high  school,  or 
one  in  a  small  town,  would  probably  use  one  of  the 
courses  only,  not  being  able  to  use  all,  while  the  larger 
centers  of  population  could  well  afford  to  provide  all  the 
opportunities  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  cost  of  mam- 
taining  all  the  courses  would  be  not  greatly  more  than  that 
of  properly  maintaining  any  one  of  them.  During  the 
first  two  years  there  is  no  differentiation  of  work ;  during 
the  last  two  there  are  many  "  constants  "  common  to  all 
the  courses.  Throughout  all  courses  provision  is  made 
for  more  or  fewer  cultural  subjects,  and  during  the  undif- 
ferentiated first  two  years  some  utilitarian  work  is  re- 
quired of  all. 

The  teaching  of  such  subjects  as  are  common  to  the 
several  courses  will  be  of  the  same  character  in  each 
course. 

All  exercises  that  aim  at  the  unification  of  the  social, 
purposive,  and  cultural  sentiments  of  the  school,  and  they 
should  be  numerous,  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  exert 
their  influence  upon  all.  This  would  go  far  to  correct  the 
evils  of  early  specialization;  the  graduates  of  the  high 
school,  from  whatever  course,  would  go  forth  into  the 
community  with  many  sentiments,  ideals,  and  purposes 
in  common^  and  this  would  be  altogether  good  both  for 
the  individual  and  for  the  social  whole.  The  social  sol- 
idarity which  makes  the  difference  between  a  democratic 
state  and  a  mere  mass  of  people  can  be  secured  in  no  way 
better^ than  by  having  boys  and  girls  of  different  social 
and  industrial  classes  pursue  the  same  cultural  and  liber- 
alizing studies  together. 


THE  CURRICULUM  197 

^  For  the  College 

The  curriculum  of  the  college  is  to  be  determined  by 
'  the  function  and  place  of  the  college  in  a  system  of  higher 
education. 

If  the  college  does  its  own  distinctive  work,  it  will  well 
serve  as  a  mediiTm  by  which  the  student  may  best  pass 
from  the  high  school  to  the  university  or  to  the  profes- 
sional school ;  and  at  the  same  time  it  will  fit  such  as  do 
not  expect  to  go  into  the  university,  for  taking  and  sus- 
taining a  place  among  the  liberally  educated.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  college  is  to  take  up  the  work  of  education 
where  the  high  school  leaves  it,  and  without  "  lost  mo- 
tion "  on  the  one  hand  or  too  close  an  imitation  of  the 
university  on  the  other,  carry  forward  the  educative  pro- 
cess to  a  point  just  short  of  close  specialization.  The 
function  of  the  college  is  to  give  breadth  and  power  rather 
than  narrow  training  and  specialized  skill. 

If  the  college  works  successfully  to  these  ends  its  cur- 
riculum must  include  those  subjects  a  study  of  which  will 
result  in  giving  the  student  a  knowledge  and  sympathetic 
appreciation  of  the  great  world  movements  and  the  forces 
that  have  caused  them,  in  politics,  in  literature,  in  science, 
and  in  art. 

In  the  following  suggestive  schedule  of  studies  for  the 
college  an  attempt  is  made  to  give  specific  form  to  the 
principles  above  laid  down. 

If  the  American  college  accepts  the  suggestions  made 
by  President  Butler,^  and  shortens  the  Bachelor's  course 
to  two  years,  all  the  college  preparatory  work  outlined 
above  for  the  high  school  will  be  prerequired.  If  the  col- 
leges continue  to  offer  courses  as  now  arranged,  such  ex- 
tended preparatory  work  in  the  high  school  should  not 

*  See  his  Report  to  the  Trustees,  for  1902. 


i98       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

be  required  for  admission  to  college,  and  the  time  for  the 
Bachelor's  degree  should  not  be  less  than  144  weeks,  four 
years  of  three  terms  each  or,  preferably,  three  years  of 
four  terms  each. 

There  is  so  little  probability  of  an  early  settlement  of 
this  question  as  to  the  length  of  the  college  curriculum 
that  no  attempt  is  here  made  to  arrange  the  subjects  by 
years.  But  the  general  order  and  relative  proportion  of 
the  subjects  in  the  two  groups,  classical  and  scientific,  are 
indicated. 

Classical  Group. 

Languages:  Two  ancient  and  at  least  three  modern  lan- 
guages, one  of  which  should  be  English,  should  be  required. 

Literature:     The  Literature  of  each  of  the  languages  studied. 

History:  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern,  with  intensive  work 
in  at  lea'st  one  elected  division. 

Mathematics:  Advanced  Algebra,  Analytics,  plane  and  spher- 
ical Trigonometry. 

Sciences:  Brief  general  courses  in  biological  and  physical 
sciences. 

Psychology:  A  general  view  of  the  matter  and  methods  of 
modern  psychology. 

Education. 

Sociology:  This  should  include  economics,  political  and  so- 
cial science,  with  a  history  of  each,  and  much  intensive,  inductive 
work. 

Philosophy  (Metaphysics)  :  The  course  should  include  the 
history  of  philosophic  thought,  the  theories  of  modern  philosophy, 
and  ethics.  The  work  in  one  or  more  of  these  divisions  should  be 
intensive. 

Music  and  Art:  General  required  courses  and  special  elec- 
tives. 

Forensics. 

Cultural  lecture  courses. 

Scientific  Group. 

The  Observational  Sciences:  General  required  courses  in  all, 
showing  their  close  interrelations;  intensive  work  in  special 
electives. 


THE  CURRICULUM  199 

f 
The  Experimental  Sciences:     As  in  the  preceding. 

Mathematics:  Through  the  differential  and  integral  Calculus, 
with  electives  in  higher  subjects. 

History:  A  general  view,  with  special  work  in  American  His- 
tory. 

Languages:  Required  courses  in  English,  French  and  Ger- 
man.   Electives  in  other  modern  languages  and  in  Latin. 

Literature:     English  and  American;  general  courses. 

Philosophy:    General  view. 

Sociology:     General  view. 

Forensics. 

Cultural  lecture  courses. 

It  is  believed  that  every  subject  which  the  college,  dis- 
tinctively as  such,  should  offer  is  included  in  the  groups 
here  given,  and  that  nothing  is  included  which  the  college 
can  afford  to  omit.  The  lists  of  subjects  given  above 
are  suggested  on  the  assumption  that  the  college,  when 
it  comes  again  to  do  its  own  proper  work,  will  offer 
only  the  two  standard  courses,  not  permitting  narrow 
specialization.  Therefore,  neither  technological  nor  pro- 
fessional training  is  here  included  in  the  work  of  the 
college. 

The  Products  of  a  College  Education. —  Education 
through  any  agency  is  a  process,  and  in  the  college  grad- 
uate its  products  should  be  (i)  a  body  of  well-digested 
knowledge;  (2)  some  power  of  independent  study  and 
investigation;  (3)  liberal  culture,  which  must  include  an 
impelling  desire  to  continue  the  educational  process  in 
some  way;  (4)  and  a  moral  strength  that  shall  enable  its 
possessor  to  keep  his  feet  in  the  stress  of  the  world's 
forces.  Of  course,  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  these 
should  be  the  products  of  the  educational  process  in  the 
high  school,  even  in  the  grades.  The  difference  is  one  of 
degree,  and  of  emphasis  upon  the  kind  of  knowledge. 
The  point  to  be  made  here  is  that  it  is  not  the  business 


200        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

of  the  college  to  copy  the  university,  nor  to  overlap  too 
far  upon  the  legitimate  work  of  the  high  school. 

Knowledge. —  The  knowledge  which  the  student 
should  have  as  the  result  of  pursuing  a  college  course 
should  be  general  rather  than  special,  and  should  acquaint 
hirn  with  the  great  world  movements  and  the  forces  that 
have  brought  them  about.  He  must  know,  and  be  in 
sympathy  with,  the  best  that  has  been  done  in  all  the  great 
fields  of  human  endeavor  in  politics,  in  literature,  in 
science,  and  in  art.  This  is  not  too  much  to  require,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  special  modes  of  human  effort 
have  multiplied  greatly  in  late  years,  and  the  sum  of 
knowledge  is  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate.  It  is  not  meant 
that  the  college  graduate  should  know  any  one  thing  as 
the  specialist  knows  it,  but  that  he  should  know  enough 
to  understand  and  appreciate  what  the  specialist  in  any 
Held  is  trying  to  do,  and  what  relation  the  truth  the  spe- 
cialist is  searching  for  has  to  other  truths.  With  a  proper 
correlation  of  subjects  in  the  college  curriculum  (and  the 
college  is  the  place  where  correlation  has  its  greatest 
value),  such  knowledge  will  not  be  difficult  to  impart  or 
to  acquire. 

The  business  of  the  college  as  regards  knowledge  is 
not  to  add  to  the  sum  total  (that  is  the  duty  of  the  uni- 
versity), but  to  place  what  is  already  known  in  possession 
of  its  students,  so  presented  that  the  learner  shall  be 
filled  with  a  lasting  desire  to  keep  in  interested  and  intel- 
ligent touch  with  all  phases  of  intellectual  attainment 
throughout  his  post-collegiate  life. 

Power. —  Power  is  gained  from  independent  self- 
directed  work.  This  does  not  mean,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  repeat,  that  the  college  student  is  to  do  research  work 
in  the  university  sense;  but  original  work  may  be  done 


THE  CURRICULUM  20I 

in  the  rediscovery  and  mastery  of  truth  which,  however 
long  estabHshed,  is  yet  new  to  the  student.  It  is  this 
kind  of  original  work  which  results  in  the  power  that  the 
college  should  give.  It  is  original  in  the  sense  that  its 
methods  and  results  are  new  to  the  student;  and  it  is 
independent  in  the  sense  that  the  pupil  should  do  much  of 
it  upon  his  own  initiative  and  without  specific  direction 
from  the  teacher.  To  secure  the  best  results  some  part, 
however  small,  of  the  work  in  the  most  important  of  the 
subjects  offered  by  the  college  should  be  intensive.  The 
student  will  thus  gain  some  insight  into  the  methods  and 
value  of  thoroughness,  and  will  acquire  some  of  the  habits 
and  impulsion  of  the  researcher. 

Culture.^ —  Culture  is  a  product  of  breadth  of  knowl- 
edge, familiarity  with  the  conventions  of  good  society, 
ready  sympathy  in  thought  and  feeling,  and  personal 
poise.  Some  of  these  elements  the  college  can  put  into 
the  life  of  the  student ;  others  are  either  innate  or  absent. 
If  innate  the  college  must  devejop  them;  if  absent,  no 
form  of  education  can  bestow  them. 

Breadth  of  knowledge  should  be  provided  for  not  only 
in  the  subjects  of  the  regular  curriculum,  but  in  suggested 
courses  of  reading,  and  general  lectures  by  members  of 
the  faculty  and  others.  Each  member  of  the  faculty 
should,  in  these  lectures,  tell  the  whole  student  body  what 
is  being  done  throughout  the  world,  in  his  own  depart- 
ment of  knowledge,  and  he  should  tell  it  so  simply,  so 
clearly,  and  with  such  enthusiasm  as  to  make  that  depart- 
ment of  knowledge  seem  to  every  student  a  highly  desira- 
ble field  to  know  more  about.     In  short  there  should  be 

^Education  20:  557;  Educational  Review  i:  105;  N.  E.  A.  Proceedings 
1 901:  619;  School  and  College  i;  i;  World's  Work  8:  4980;  Educational 
Review  16:   147. 


202        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

much    real    ''  university    extension "    within    the   college 
itself,  from  one  department  to  another. 

The  subject  which  should  focus  all  others  and  correlate 
them  is  philosophy,  the  lecture  presentation  of  which 
should  always  be  by  a  man  with  a  very  clear  general  view 
of  all  the  great  fields  of  human  learning  and  inquiry,  and 
with  power  to  set  each  in  right  perspective. 

A  series  of  lectures  here  indicated,  by  the  college 
faculty,  and  by  men  and  women  not  in  the  faculty,  who 
have  thought  most  and  done  most  and  can  tell  it  best, 
would  do  more  to  broaden  and  enrich  student  life  in 
college  than  quadruple  the  same  time  spent  in  routine 
class  work.  Any  student  going  from  such  influences 
into  university  work  would  never  suffer  from  the  ignorant 
and  unsympathetic  narrowness  which  is  so  often  the  re- 
proach of  the  modern  specialist.^ 

For  the  Teachers'  Training  School 

The  Function  of  the  Teachers'  School. —  There  seems 
to  be  danger  of  forgetting  that  the  sole  concern  of  the 
state  teachers'  training  school  is  with  the  improvement  of 
teaching,  and  that  the  chief  stress  should  be  laid  upon 
improving  the  work  in  the  rural  schools. 

In  adapting  its  work  to  the  educational  needs  of  the 
whole  community  which  it  serves,  the  training  school 
must  neither  refuse  to  recognize  the  actual  conditions 
under  which  its  pupils  will  have  to  teach,  nor  fail  to 

^  Much  has  been  written  of  late  upon  the  topics  touched  on  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages.  Very  interesting  matter  will  be  found  in  the  following 
articles,  "A  New  Definition  of  a  Cultured  Man,"  (Eliot),  World's  Work, 
6:  3806;  "The  Ideal  Education,"  Independent,  54:  2660;  "Higher  Educa- 
tion and  Citizenship,"  Independent,  54:  690;  "The  Aim  of  Education," 
Journal  of  Pedagogy,  16:  43;  "Education  and  the  Individual,"  Journal 
of  Pedagogy,  14:  321;  "Law  of  Future  Specific  and  Social  Efficiency," 
Journal  of  Pedagogy,  15:  119;  "Education  for  Social  Control,"  N.  E.  A. 
Report,  1901:  619;  "Scholarship  and  Service"  (Butler),  Ed.  Rev.  24:  i; 
"  Fundamental  Principles  of  American  Education,"  Ed.   Rev.  24:  187. 


THE  CURRICULUM  203 

show  its  students  and  its  public  how  these  conditions  may 
be  improved. 

Unmindful  of  these  facts,  some  teachers'  training 
schools  offer  collegiate  courses  of  study,  with  collegiate 
degrees,  and  think  more  of  fitting  students  for  college 
than  of  their  own  proper  work. 

To  a  forgetfulness  of  their  real  duties  also  may  be  at- 
tributed the  pronounced  tendency  of  most  of  these  schools 
to  an  undue  insistence  upon  high  standards  of  admission 
to  even  their  shortest  courses.  A  city  teachers'  training 
school,  or  one  situated  in  a  state  where  rural  high  schools 
are  numerous,  may  require  its  students  to  present  a  high 
school  diploma  as  a  condition  of  admission.  In  com- 
munities where  high  schools  are  few  such  a  requirement 
would  be  unjust.  It  is  far  better  that  the  many  should 
get  some  help  in  their  work  than  that  only  a  select  few 
should  be  offered  superior  advantages. 

This  is  in  no  sense  intended  to  mean  that  thoroughness 
of  scholarship  need  not  be  one  of  the  'products  of  the 
teachers'  training  school.  It  simply  means  that  however 
desirable  it  might  be  to  have  every  rural  school  taught 
by  a  college  graduate,  such  an  ideal  is  at  present  unat- 
tainable, and  the  teachers'  school  must  face  actual  condi- 
tions and  make  the  best  of  them. 

The  college  and  the  university  should  uphold  and  raise 
higher  the  standards  and  dignity  of  advanced  scholarship. 
The  chief  business  of  the  teachers'  training  school  is,  first, 
to.  give  thoroughness  in  a  teaching  knowledge  of  the  com- 
mon branches;  second,  to  show  how  to  organize,  direct, 
and  teach  a  school ;  and,  third,  to  introduce  its  students 
to  the  higher  branches. 

These  are  the  essentials ;  more  may  be  done  if  oppor- 
tunity and  means  allow. 


204       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

There  may,  for  example,  be  a  special  course  for  kinder- 
gartners  and  for  graduates  of  high  schools,  and  ad- 
vanced work  for  students  who  have  completed  an  academ- 
ic course  in  college.  But  the  first  and  plainest  and  most 
important  duty  of  the  state  teachers'  training  school  is 
to  fheet  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the  rural  schools. 

Two  Courses  Offered. —  The  teachers'  training  school 
should  offer  at  least  two  courses,  a  shorter  and  a  longer ; 
the  one  for  such  students  as  can  prepare  in  a  half  year, 
or  at  most  a  year,  for  work  in  the  elementary  schools; 
the  other  for  such  as  can  spend  more  time  in  preparation 
for  better  work  or  higher  positions. 

The  Short  Course. 
(24  to  48  weeks.) 
Arithmetic,  ^.* 
Algebra,  i.* 
Civics,  ^. 

Composition  and  Rhetoric,  i. 
Drawing,  i,  twice  a  week. 
Forensics,  i,  once  a  week. 
Geography,  ^. 
Grammar,  Y2. 

Gymnasium  Practice,  twice  a  week. 
Manual  Training,  i,  twice  a  week.  i 

Nature  Study   (Elementary  Sciences),  i. 

Observation   in  the    Pedagogical   Museum   and   in   the   Model 
School,  with  oral  and  written  reports,  i,  three  times  a  week. 
Pedagogy  (theoretical),  H- 
Penmanship,  >4. 
Physiology  and  Hygiene,  ^.^ 
Professional  Reading,  ^,  once  a  week. 
Vocal  Music,  i,  three  times  a  week. 

^  Subjects  marked   H   are  taken   for  one-half  of  the  time  of  the  course. 

^  Subjects  marked  i  are  taken  throughout  the  course.  If  Monday  is 
used  as  a  holiday,  instead  of  Saturday,  as  is  the  case  in  many  schools, 
much  time  will  be  saved. 

^  All  pupil-teachers  should  be  especially  instructed  in  detecting  physical 
defects  in  children,  and  in  what  to  do  in  cases  of  accident. 


THE  CURRICULUM.  205 

The  Long  Course. 

(Two  years  of  48  weeks  each.) 

Year  i. 

Higher  Arithmetic  completed. 

Rhetoric,  with  much  practice  in  composition. 

Botany. 

Pedagogy  (general  outline). 

Drawing,  twice  a  week.  ^ 

Forensics,  once  a  week. 

Music,  twice  a  week. 

Manual  Training,  once  a  week. 

Higher  Algebra. 

American  Literature. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

Psychology. 

Drawing,  twice  a  week. 

Forensics,  once  a  week. 

Music,  twice  a  week. 

Manual  Training,  once  a  week. 

Higher  Algebra,  cont. 

American  Literature. 

Physics. 

General    Methodology,    3    times    a    week;    observations 

in  the  Model   School,  with  oral  and  written  reports, 

twice  a  week. 
Drawing,  twice  a  week. 
Forensics,  once  a  week. 
Music,  twice  a  week. 
Manual  Training,  once  a  week. 

Higher  Algebra,  completed. 

English  Literature. 

Zoology. 

Professional    reading    and    observation    in    the    Model 

School,  with  oral  and  written  reports. 
Drawing,  twice  a  week. 
Forensics,  once  a  week. 
Music,  twice  a  week. 
Manual  Training,  once  a  week. 
Gymnasium  Practice  throughout  the  year. 


B 
H 


206       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Year  ii. 

Plane  Geometry. 

English  Literature  and  English  History. 

Chemistry. 

Educational  Economy:   School  equipment. 

Observation  in  Pedagogical  Museum  and  Model  School, 

with  oral  and  written  reports,  3  times  a  week. 
Forensics,  once  a  week. 

Trigonometry. 

General  History. 

Sociology. 

Educational  Economy:  Organization  and  Administration 

of  Schools. 
Practice  teaching. 
Forensics,  once  a  week. 

Review  of  the  Common  Branches,  with  their  Method- 
ology. 
American  History  and  Civics. 

Practice  teaching,  and  Observation  in  the  Model  School. 
Forensics,  once  a  week. 

Review  of  the  Common  Branches,  with  their  Method- 
♦     ology,  continued.  ' 

School  Laws  of  the  State,  once  a  week. 
History    of  Education:  library  study. 
Practice  teaching.  > 

Forensics,  and  development  of  a  thesis. 


<u 


H 


In  urging  the  need  and  expediency  of  such  courses  as 
those  given  above,  the  emphasis  is  placed,  as  it  should  be, 
on  the  actual  conditions  and  requirements  of  the 
majority  of  rural  schools.  In  those  States  that  have  a 
large  urban  population  and  numerous  high  schools  the 
State  teachers'  training  schools  can  afford  to  have  higher 
standards  of  admission,  offer  stronger  courses,  and  pre- 
pare teachers  for  the  highest  positions  in  the  public 
schools.  The  State  teachers'  training  school  should  also 
offer  courses  especially  designed  for  county  superinten- 


THE  CURRICULUM  207 

dents.  Such  courses  would  contain,  among  other  things, 
instruction  in  the  school  laws,  in  the  best  modes  of 
administrative  detail,  and  in  plans  for  bringing  the  schools 
and  community  into  closer  touch. 

In  some  cases  the  training  school  may  sustain  courses 
for  the  training  of  institute  instructors. 

B.  Administration  of  the  Curriculum 
(a)  Ends  in  View 
The" ends  in  view  in  planning  and  administering  a 
course  of  study  are  (i)  the  discipline  and  culture  of  the 
individual,  (2)  his  socialization,  and  (3)  the  careful 
economizing,  to  these  ends,  of  the  time  and  energy  of 
both  teacher  and  pupil. 

Discipline  and  Culture 

Discipline. —  Discipline  is  that  condition  of  the  mind 
which  is  charcterized  by  power  —  power  to  perceive,  to 
remember,  to  reflect,  and  to  feel  intensely,  but  to  restrain 
feeling  —  and  by  skill  to  do  these  things  quickly  and  well, 
and  to  express  them  adequately. 

General  Discipline  Possible. —  Those  who  have 
claimed  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  ''  general  disci- 
pline,"—  that  there  are  memories,  but  not  memory,  judg- 
ments, but  not  judgment,  and  so  on, —  are  quite  as  wrong 
as  those  who,  earlier,  claimed  that  general  discipline  was 
the  chief,  if  not  the  sole,  end  of  education.  The  expe- 
rience of  every  educated  man  and  woman,  and  the  increas- 
ing demand,  in  every  kind  of  business,  for  the  graduates 
of  high  schools  and  colleges,  give  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  value  of  general  discipline.  Such  evidence  is  far 
stronger  than  any  amount  of  mere  a  priori  theorizing,  or 
the  sporadic  experimenting  that  has  been  done  in  psycho- 
logical laboratories. 


-    208        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Discipline  comes  from  hard  work  done  with  thorough- 
ness and  with  the  sort  of  interest  that  gets  its  satisfaction 
in  the  mastery  of  a  matter  both  for  ultimate  ends  and 
also  for  the  sake  of  mastering.  It  results  from  such  an 
administration  of  the  curriculum  as  holds  the  pupil  stead- 
ily to  independent  work,  tested  constantly  by  clear,  ac- 
curate, and  definite  results.  The  proof  of  discipline  is 
the  ability  of  the  pupil,  at  any  given  point  in  the  course 
of  study,  to  do,  with  care  and  confidence,  any  or  all  of 
the  essential  work  required  up  to  that  point,  and  to  take 
up  and  quickly  master  new  work. 

Culture. —  Culture  is  a  thing  of  the  spirit;  it  is  the 
highest  product  of  education.  It  rests  upon  knowledge, 
but  is  far  more  than  knowledge.  It  manifests  itself  in 
personal  bearing,  in  courtesy,  in  character,  in  depth  and 
breadth  of  learning,  and  in  the  ability  and  willingness  to 
use  learning  for  self-enjoyment  and  for  the  happiness 
of  others. 

So  to  administer  the  course  of  study  that  the  pupils 
shall  gain  culture  can  be  done  only  through  the  vital 
contact  of  the  teacher's  rich  and  cultured  personality 
with  the  aroused  and  appetent  pers6nality  of  the  pupil. 

Socialization  of  the  Individual'^ 
Criterion  of  Civilization. —  The  chief  'criterion  of  an 
advanced  and  advancing  civilization  is  the  degree  of  inter- 
dependence and  mutual  helpfulness  of  its  members.    The 
lowest  society,  that  which  is  only  one  or  two  removes 

^  So  rapid  has  been  the  growth  of  the  educational  ideal  expressed  by  this 
phrase  that  there  is  already  much  good  writing  about  it.  A  very  few 
of  the  most  helpful  references  are  here  appended:  "Higher  Individ- 
ualism as  the  End  of  Education,"  Journal  of  Pedagogy,  12:  230; 
Small's  "Demands  of  Sociology  upon  Pedagogy";  Young's  "Isolation  in 
the  School  ";  Dewey's  "  School  and  Society  ";  Henderson's  "  Education  and 
the  Higher  Life";  "Social  Movement  in  France,"  Proceedings  N.  E.  A., 
1902:    383. 


THE  CURRICULUM  209 

from  the  jungle,  is  characterized  by  a  crassly  physical 
outworking  of  the  law  6f  survival.  As  man  ascends,  the 
law  gtill  holds  inexorably,  but  its  outworking  is  more  and 
more  spiritual.  The  value  of  the  individual,  his  fitness 
to  survive,  is  expressed  in  social  terms,  in  terms  of  the 
service  he  is  able  to  render  to  social  Hfe  and  growth.  It 
is  this  idea  which  gives  substance  and  force  to  the  modern 
ideal  of  Democracy. 

Mutual  Obligations  of  Society  and  the  Individual. — 
It  has  taken  nearly  twenty  centuries  to  establish  the  free- 
dom of  the  individual  among  the  most  civilized  nations. 
It  is  time  now  to  recognize  the  inescapable  reciprocal  ob- 
ligations of  the  individual  and  the  social  whole. 

Public  education  must  fit  boys  and  girls  to  meet  the 
material  and  spiritual  needs  of  that  public  which  educates 
them,  instead  of  merely  fitting  them  to  get  out  of  the  pub- 
lic that  which  meets  their  own  wants.  This  is  what  is 
meant  by  the  phrase  "  socialization  of  the  individual." 
It  is  to  be  attained  by  nothing  short  of  putting  school 
administration  into  the  hands  of  men  and  women  who 
are  not  themselves  isolated  from  the  social  whole  by  their 
modes  of  thought  and  life,  but  who  are  in  vital  touch 
with  all  the  great  currents  of  human  progress,  are  inspired 
by  civic  pride  and  patriotism,  and  are  eager  to  bring  each 
pupil  into  the  full  heritage  of  the  race. 

Economy  of  Time  and  Energy 

The  demand  is  stronger  to-day  than  it  has  ever  been 
that  the  time  and  energy  of  the  learner  be  economized. 
Students  of  education  are  earnestly  striving  to  meet  this 
demand  by  determining  essentials  of  subject-matter  and 
essentials  of  method  and  management.  This  work  is  just 
beginning. 

Roark's  Econ. — 14 


210        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

(b)  Theories  of  Administering  the  Curriculum 

The  "'  Culture  Epoch  "  Theory 
About  forty  years  ago,  a  disciple  of.  Herbart  outlined  a 
scheme  of  cultural  and  moral  education  based  upon  the 
"  culture  epoch ''  theory.^  This  theory  assumes  that  the 
individual  repeats,  in  his  own  development,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  race.  The  scheme  of  school  education 
founded  upon  it  provides  for  a  succession  of  subjects  and 
methods  of  presenting  them  that  shall  conform  to  the 
several  more  or  less  distinct  epochs  of  racial  evolution. 

In  Germany. —  In  Germany,  more  than  anywhere  else, 
the  culture  epoch  theory  has  been  put  into  practice.  But 
even  there  only  the  culture  side  of  the  work  is  considered 
in  selecting  material.  The  course  begins  with  myths,  and 
develops  through  Robinson  Crusoe,  Thuringian  stories, 
and  the  Niebelungen  Songs,  and  early  periods  of  German 
history,  to  the  latest  epochs  of  national  life.  Literature 
and  history  are  thus  taken  as  the  sources  of  interest  and 
educative  material.  The  relation  of  the  pupil  to  his  pres- 
ent material  environment  is  practically  ignored  in  the 
application  of  the  theory. 

In  America. —  The  theory  has  not  been  worked  into 
the  course  of  study  to  any  considerable  extent  in  this  coun- 
try. Some  experiments  are  going  forward  that  will  de- 
termine what  is  best  in  it,  and  how  it  may  be  modified  to 
meet  the  conditions  of  American  life.^  So  far  as  these  ex- 
periments have  gone  they  have  emphasized  the  value  of 
constructive  work,  some  form  of  manual  training,  and 
have  recognized  by  carefully  planned  exercises  in  nature 
s.tudy  the  individual's  recapitulation  of  the  race's  long 
struggle  with  its  material  environment. 

1  Ziller,   "  Grundlegung   zur  Lehre   vom   erz.     Unterricht." 
*  See  Scott's  "  Organic  Education,"  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


THE  CURRICULUM  '    211 

Value  of  the  Theory. —  The  chief  value  of  the  culture- 
epoch  theory  is  in  the  side  light  it  throws  upon  child 
psychology,  and  in  the  recognition  it  gives  to  the  individ- 
ual's oneness  with  the  race.  It  is  helpful  in  explaining 
certain  tendencies  and  impulses  peculiar  to  children's 
growth.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  anything  of  value 
has  been  or  can  be  discovered  by  working  conformably  to 
the  theory  that  might  not  be  discovered  through  a  sympa- 
thetic study  of  the  individual  without  reference  to  his 
recapitulation  of  race  development. 

Any  attempt  to  apply  the  theory  closely  must  be  futile, 
for  only  the  most  general  correspondences  can  be  found 
between  the  periods  of  the  child's  development  and  the 
epochs  of  race  growth.  Even  if  it  were  possible  to  estab- 
lish exact  correspondences,  it  would  be  unwise  to  plan  a 
course  of  study  and  methods  of  teaching  in  strict  con- 
formity therewith,  for  the  sufficient  reason  that,  in  his 
recapitulation,  the  average  child  exhibits  some  characteris- 
tics it  is  highly  desirable  to  eliminate.  The  child,  as  the 
heir  of  the  race,  should  be  put  in  possession  of  only  the 
best  which  the  race  has  gained  for  him.  And  he  should 
be  trained  to  adapt  himself  to  the  actual  conditions  of 
modern  life,  not  to  those  of  bygone  eras.^' 

Correlation  of  Studies 

Ziller,  who  sought  to  make  practical  application  of  the 
culture-epoch  theory,  also  planned  an  arrangement  of 
studies  to  secure  economy  of  time  and  energy  through 
association  of  subjects.  The  terms  ''  correlation,"  "  con- 
centration," and  "  coordination  "  have  been  used  to  de- 
scribe this  arrangement.^ 

'  See  further,  N.  E.  A.  Report,  '99:  576;  Ed.  Review,  15:  374;  Ed.  Review, 
17:  105;  Journal  of  Ped.,  12:  295;  16:   136. 

*  Refer  to  Ed.  Review,  10:  364;  Report  of  Nat.  Com.  of  Ed.  '93—4,  i: 
492. 


212        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Definition  of  Terms. —  So  far  as  definitions  may  be 
drawn  from  the  literature  of  the  Herbartian  writers  and 
their  critics,  the  term  "  correlation  "  is  generic  and  in- 
cludes the  other  two.  "  Concentration "  means  the 
grouping  or  correlating  of  studies  around  a  central  core, 
between  which  and  the  other  subjects  some  vital  relation 
exists. 

*'  Coordination  "  is  the  correlation  of  several  groups  of 
studies  with  one  another,  each  group  made  up  of  asso- 
ciated subjects,  and  equal  in  rank  to  each  other  group. 

Concentration. —  Ziller  used  the  literary  and  historical 
material  of  his  culture-epoch  scheme  as  the  "  core  "  of 
concentration.  All  the  work  of  each  grade  was,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  be  concentrated  around  this  culture  material, 
and  made  subordinate  to  it.  This  plan  of  concentration 
left  out  nature  study  and  constructive  work.  This  idea 
has  been  worked  out,  theoretically,  with  considerable 
detail  by  the  American  Herbartians.  In  a  few  schools  it 
has  been  applied  practically  with  some  success. 

Other  cores  of  concentration  than  the  culture  material 
of  literature  and  history  have  been  suggested,  and  in  some 
instances  used.  Col.  Parker  used  Geography  as  a  center ; 
and  Dewey  centers  the  work  about  the  constructive  activi- 
ties of  the  pupils. 

Coordination. —  Some  of  the  most  careful,  studfents  of 
education,  whose  thought  is  not  too  strongly  tinctured 
with  Herbartianism,  urge  the  impossibility  of  complete 
concentration,  of  making  any  one  branch  supreme  and 
subordinating  all  others  to  it.  They  suggest  a  correlation 
which  shall  recognize  two  or  more  coordinate  groups  of 
subjects,  the  subjects  of  each  group  being  interrelated. 
Frick  proposes  two  groups,  the  humanistic  and  the 
natural.     De   Garmo   proposes   three   groups, — (i)    the 


THE  CURRICULUM  213 

humanistic,  or  cultural, (2)  the  natural,  or  scientific,  and 
(3)  the  economic,  or  the  group  made  up  of  the  indu^rial 
and  commercial  arts.  Prince  offers  four  groups, — (i) 
the  humanistic,  made  up  of  knowledge  relating  to  man, 
(2)  scientific,  (3)  mathematical,  and  (4)  expressional. 
Harris  insists  upan  five  coordinate  groups, — (i)  litera- 
ture and  art,  (2)  mathematics,  (3)  geography  as  natural 
science,  (4)  grammar  as  typical  of  logic  and  philosophy, 
(5)  history,  leading  to  sociology,  politics,  etc. 

Two  Bases  of  Correlation. —  In  all  this  discussion, 
there  has  not  been  sufficient  recognition  given  to  the  fact 
that  the  subject  of  correlation  may  be  approached  from 
two  standpoints.  Correlation  may  be  based  upon  the 
relations  existing  between  the  subjects  themselves;  or  it 
may  be  based  upon  the  relation  which  the  subjects  sev- 
erally sustain  to  the  mind  of  the  learner.  It  is  here  con- 
tended that  the  mind  of  the  learner  is  the  chief  or  primary 
basis  of  correlation ;  that  the  relations  between  the  subjects 
themselves  is  secondary,  and  grows  out  of  and  depends 
upon  the  first. 

The  contention  that  the  mind  of  the  learner  is  the  true 
core  of  correlation  is  not  new,  but  no  scheme  of  correla- 
tion around  it  has  been  proposed,  even  by  those  who  have 
most  insisted  that  the  pupil  is  the  center.  Prince  comes 
nearest  to  recognizing  the  true  basis  of  correlation  in  his 
fourth  group,  made  up  of  expressional  subjects. 

Correlation  Based  upon  Mental  Operations. —  The 
operations  of  the  mind  being  acquisition,  assimilation,  and 
expression,  it  is  evident  that  the  studies  and  exercises  of 
the  curriculum  should  be  grouped  as  acquisitional,  assimi- 
lational,  and  expressional}     Under  this  scheme  of  relating 

*  Refer   also   to    Roark's    "Psychology   in    Education,"    pp.    iS5-265»   and 
"Method  in  Education,"  pp.  96—103. 


214       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

the  subjects  to  the  pupil  rather  than  relating  them  to 
one  another,  the  acquisitional  group  includes  science,  the 
facts  of  nature,  and  history,  the  facts  of  man ;  the  assimi- 
lational  group  is  made  up  of  mathematics,  the  study  of 
quantity  relations,  and  philosophy,  or  thought  relations; 
the  expressional  group  is  made  up  of  language,  literature, 
and  the  arts,  all  the  forms  and  processes  whereby  hu- 
manity expresses  itself. 

The  Interrelation  of  Subjects. —  The  second  and  sub- 
sidiary basis  of  correlation,  which  is  the  relation  of  the 
several  subjects  to  one  another,  is  useful  in  making  each 
subject  or  each  group  help  in  the  mastery  of  other  sub- 
jects and  groups.  For  example,  nature  study  is  helpful 
in  geography,  geography  in  history,  history  in  civics,  and 
language  and  manual  training  in  all  subjects.  The  rich 
content  of  the  acquisitional  subjects  furnishes  the  mate- 
rial for  use  in  the  assimilational  group,  and  both  the 
acquisitional  and  assimilational  supply  the  subject-matter, 
the  feeling  and  thought,  for  the  expressional  group.  An 
even  more  intimate  correlation  of  the  materials  of  each 
subject  rests  upon  the  fact  that  in  each  subject  there  is 
matter  to  be  acquired,  assimilated,  and  expressed. 

Correlation  upon  the  secondary  basis,  that  of  the  inter- 
relations of  subjects  and  their  mutual  and  reciprocal  use- 
fulness, is  valuable  in  balancing  the  defects  of  psycho- 
logical correlation.  The  former  is  objective,  worked  out 
in  teaching  the  child,  in  his  learning  each  branch  not  as 
an  end  in  itself  but  as  supplementary  to  others  and  as  a 
tool  in  further  learning.  The  latter,  psychological  corre- 
lation, is  mainly  subjective,  guiding  those  who  plan 
courses  of  study,  and  those  who  draw  from  these  courses 
the  materials  with  which  teaching  is  done.  Few  courses 
of  study  have  been  psychologically  planned. 


THE  CURRICULUM  215 

Interest 

The  theory  and  the  practice  of  education  owe  much  to 
Herbart  and  his  disciples  for  focusing  the  thought  of 
teachers  upon  the  economic  value  of  interest.  The  doc- 
trine of  interest  has  been  fruitful  of  good  teaching,  and 
of  comfort  and  joy  to  the  pupil,  even  though  it  has  been 
pushed  to  an  injurious  extreme  by  some '  over-zealous 
practitioners. 

Interest  Identical  with  Feeling. —  Interest  may  be 
used  as  an  equivalent  term  for  any  or  all  of  the  feelings, 
emotions,  affections,  or  desires.  We  are  interested  in 
whatsoever  arouses,  stimulates,  or  gratifies  feeling. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Herbart  himself  did  not 
clearly  recognize  the  identity  of  interest  with  feeling  as 
defined  in  the  older  psychology.  To  have  perceived  such 
identity  would  have  saved  much  obscure  discussion. 

All  the  phases  of  interest  described  by  Herbart,^  and 
other  forms  not  named  by  him,  may  be  shown  to  be  forms 
of  feeling.  Thus,  the  "  interests  arising  from  knowl- 
edge "  are  identical  with  the  intellectual  feelings;  the  *'  in- 
terests arising  from  human  relations "  are  simply  the 
feelings  of  sympathy,  pity,  the  desire  for  society,  and  the 
desire  for  harmony  with  God.^  Such  a  view  of  interest 
places  it  upon  familiar  ground,  and  makes  it  plain  that 
knowledge,  growth  of  character,  development  of  will 
power  are  all  to  be  attained  through  the  stimulation  of 
right  motives. 

Higher  Application  of  the  Doctrine  of  Interest. — 
The  most  important  service  rendered  by  Herbart,  next  to 
his  showing  the  intrinsic  economic  value  of  interest  in  se- 
curing attention  for  rapid  and  effective  work,  was  his  in- 

^  DeGarmo's   "Herbart  and  the  Herbartians,"'p.   64. 

^  See  Roark's   **  Psychology  in   Education,"   Chaps.  X    and  XI. 


2i6        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

sistence  upon  interest  as  desirable  in  itself,  as  a  pleasant, 
comforting,  and  sustaining  state  of  mind.  The  best  and 
highest  application  of  the  doctrine  sends  students  forth 
from  any  grade,  alert  to  see  and  to  hear  the  best,  eager  to 
know,  open  minded  to  the  truth,  full  of  noble  aspirations. 

■Herbart  showed  how  the  emotional  nature,  which  had 
been  for  centuries  condemned  and  suppressed  in  the 
schools,  could  be  made  the  mainspring  of  right  action  and 
a  source  of  legitimate  joy.  There  is  no  conflict  whatever 
between  this  idea  of  interest  and  the  idea  of  duty,  or  even 
of  the  necessity  of  drudgery.  The  feeling  of  oughtness 
is  innate  in  the  human  being,  and  the  performance  of 
duty  gratifies  this  feeling  and  so  prompts  to  the  further 
discharge  of  duty.  So  far  from  there  being  antagonism 
'between  drudgery  and  interest,  it  is  interest  that  makes 
the  performance  of  drudgery  possible.  Drudgery  may 
be  defined  as  work  which  is  uninteresting  in  itself,  but 
which  must  be  done  in  order  to  the  attainment  of  some 
end  that  is  desired.  Interest  carries  the  worker  through 
the  drudgery  to  the  desired  result,  and  hence  the  need 
that  the  teacher  shall  often  direct  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  to  ultimate  goals,  fixing  his  interest  upon  them,  and 
showing  from  biography,  past  and  present,  how  faithful 
application  to  the  present  task  will  lead  to  the  full  satis- 
faction of  his  right  ambitions.  The  function  of  the 
teacher  is  not  to  follow  blindly  the  interests  of  the  pupil, 
but  to  arouse  in  him  interest  in  the  work  he  ought  to  do. 
One  of  the  highest  pleasures  comes  through  the  conscious- 
ness of  overcoming  obstacles,  of  facing  down  a  disagree- 
able thing,  to  reach  something  finally  worth  while. 

Some  Misapplications  of  the  Doctrine. —  Although 
Herbart  clearly  meant  by  interest  "  something  of  vast 
importance  to  the  development  of  the  individual,  not  a 


THE  CURRICULUM.         ^  217 

mere  tickling  of  the  mind  for  transient  ends,"  yet  some 
of  his  too  ardent  followers  have  contended  that  the  tran- 
sient interest,  the  mere  passing  whim  of  child  or  student, 
is  the  guide  pointing  the  way  the  teacher  must  follow. 
This  extreme  and  harmful  view  has  not  only  been  ad- 
vocated theoretically  but  has  been  put  into  actual  practice, 
in  one  instance,  at  least,  going  so  far  as  to  allow  the  chil- 
dren of  an  elementary  school  to  plan  the  exercises  from 
day  to  day. 

The  Doctrine  of  Election.^ — There  is  some  danger 
of  a  similar  misapplication  of  the  doctrine  of  interest  in 
the  later  doctrine  of  election  in  studies,  so  earnestly  urged 
in  recent  years.  A  revolt  from  the  prescribed  narrow 
and  formal  curriculum  of  former  days  was  inevitable, 
but  it  should  not  reach  the  extreme  of  anarchy.  Indi- 
vidual interests^  aptitudes,  and  social  needs  are  sufficiently 
and  safely  provided  for  if  choice  is  permitted  between 
several  different  courses  or  groups  of  studies  in  the  high 
school  and  college.  To  speak  of  election  below  the  high 
school  is,  surely,  to  "  darken  counsel  by  words  without 
knowledge."  A  principle  which  is  fundamental,  and 
therefore  safe,  should  determine  the  extent  of  election, 
namely,  to  the  learner  should  he  given  that  knowledge 
and  those  tools  which  the  race  has  found  most  serviceable 
in  bringing  it  to  where  it  now  is. 

To  do  otherwise  is  to  make  the  accumulated  experience 
and  wisdom  of  the  race  count  for  little  as  compared  with 
the  inexperienced  whim  or  unreasoned  impulse  of  the 
pupil. 

In  discussing  this  question  of  electives  much  has  been 
said  of  the  differences  between  individuals,  and  the  need 

^  Refer  to  Education  21:  515;  Forum  31:  599;  Educational  Review  4: 
53,  142;  Report  of  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.  '97:  373;  Educational  Review  5:  142; 
Report  of  Nat.   Ed.  Assoc.    1900:   428;   School   Review    11:   690. 


2i8        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

of  adapting  school  work  to  these  differences.  But  the 
fact  remains  that  children  are  more  alike  than  they  are 
different,  and  that  early  specialization  is  impracticable  and 
unwise. 

There  is  plenty  of  room  for  individual  variation  in 
work  on  the  same  subjects.  All  may  take  the  same 
nutriment,  but  each  will  assimilate  in  his  own  way. 
With  all  the  hubbub  about  the  "  individual "  no  one  has 
yet  offered  an  individualistic  course  of  study.  Unless 
the  child  has  a  markedly  strong  bent  in  some  direction 
he  has  no  need  of  electives  below  the  second  or  third 
year  of  the  high  school. 

The  Aims  of  the  Different  Schools. —  The  purpose  of 
the  elementary  school  is  to  acquaint  the  pupil  with  the 
alphabets  of  human  knowledge  and  progress.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  secondary  school  is  to  put  him  into  more  secure 
possession  of  these  and  to  have  him  use  them  either  in 
preparing  for  advanced  study  or  in  preparing  for  a  voca- 
tion. The  aim  of  the  college  is  to  introduce  the  student 
to  the  whole  circle  of  knowledge,  that  he  may  be  able  to 
choose  which  sector  he  shall  make  his  own.  There  can 
be  no  intelligent  and  real  choice  without  a  knowledge  of 
values.  In  none  of  the  courses  or  groups  of  study,  there- 
fore, between  which  choice  is  offered,  should  any  one  of 
the  great  divisions  of  human  knowledge  and  culture  be 
unrepresented. 

(c)  Waste  in  Administration  of  Curriculum 

The  two  greatest  causes  of  educational  waste  are  (l) 
inefficient  teaching,  and  (2)  using  more  time  than  is 
needed.  Inefficient  teaching  always  wastes  time ;  but  time 
may  be  wasted  where  the  teaching  is  good,  owing  to  faulty 
methods  of  organization  and  administration  of  the  sys- 
tem as  a  whole.     The  faults  oi  school  organization  that 


THE  CURRICULUM  219 

have  wasted  most  time  are  (i)  inflexible  gradation, 
(2)  "block"  promotion  (the  two  together  constituting 
what  has  so  well  been  named  the  "  lock-step  "),  and  (3) 
the  shortness  of  the  school  year. 

Grades  and  Promotions. —  The  introduction  of  the 
graded  system  into  school  work,  by  Sturm,  was  a  great 
step  forward  in  the  economical  administration  of  the  cur- 
riculum. But  like  many  other  good  things,  it  was  carried 
to  a  harmful  extreme,  and  it  took  two  or  three  centuries 
to  reach  the  conviction  that  inflexible  gradation  and  yearly 
promotion  in  blpcks  are  fertile  sources  of  waste. 

After  the  glamour  of  the  idea  of  strict  uniformity 
faded,  it  did  not  take  long  to  realize  that  the  plan  of  mov- 
ing whole  grades  forward  by  yearly  promotions  involved 
other  wasteful  practices.  Promotions  were  made  to  de- 
pend largely  upon  set  examinations,  and  examinations 
were  held  mainly  for  the  purposes  of  determining  promo- 
tions. If  a  pupil  failed  in  one  or  more  subjects  he  was 
usually  required  to  re-take  the  whole  work  of  the  grade 
in  which  the  failure  was  made.  Bright  pupils,  not  having 
enough  to  do,  became  lazy  and  indifferent.  Dull  pupils, 
being  driven  too  fast,  became  discouraged  and  dropped 
out  of  school. 

Schoolmen  and  the  public  both  came  to  feel  that  the 
schools  must  give  every  pupil  an  opportunity  and  stimu- 
lus to  do  his  best  and  to  advance  as  rapidly  as  his  best 
would  justify.  This  feeling  has  resulted  in  much  care- 
ful and  valuable  experimenting  to  discover  the  best  means 
of  economizing  pupil  time  and  energy.^ 

*  See  "Promotions  and  Examinations,"  Bureau  of  Ed.,  Wash.,  D.  C. ; 
"Lock-step  in  Ed.,"  Atlantic  Monthly  79:  749;  "Successful  Exper.  in  Pro- 
moting," Educational  Review  18:  23;  "Promotion  of  Bright  and  Slow 
Pupils,"  Educational  Review  19:  296;  Nat.  Report  '90-91,  2:  981;  Nat. 
Ed.  Assoc.  Report,  '99:  163;  1900:  332;  1901:  285;  The  World's  Work 
6:    3785. 


220       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

The  following  conclusions  drawn  from  experiments  al- 
ready made,  furnish  safe  ground  from  which  to  push  fur- 
ther experimentation. 

Average  Length  of  Course. —  The  course  of  study 
between  the  kindergarten  and  the  high  school  should  be 
planned  so  that  the  "  average  pupil  "  can  cover  it  in  six 
years.  This  can  be  done,  but  only  by  making  the  school 
year  consist  of  four  terms  of  ten  or  twelve  weeks  each, 
instead  of  three  terms,  or,  as  is  most  usually  the  case, 
two. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  "  vacation  school ''  idea  is 
sufficient  evidence  that  pupils  do  not  need  three  months 
absence  from  school.  It  has  long  been  evident  to  teachers 
and  parents  that  a  vacation  of  a  full  fourth  of  a  year  is 
harmful  to  the  best  interests  of  the  pupil  and  of  the  school. 
By  the  four-term  arrangement  two  full  school  years  could 
be  saved  out  of  every  eight,  thus  reducing  the  time  to  six 
years,  without  weakening  the  course  of  study  or  lessening 
the  total  amount  of  work  done.  The  terms  should  be 
used  more  as  promotion  intervals  than  as  time  allotments 
for  the  completion  of  a  subject. 

This  arrangement  would  permit  the  slow  pupil  to  com- 
plete the  course  below  the  high  school  in  about  the  same 
length  of  time  it  now  takes  the  bright  one  to  do  it. 

Examinations. —  The  teaching  value  of  examinations 
has  been  discussed  elsewhere.^  As  an  important  element 
in  educational  economy  they  are  rapidly  falling  into  dis- 
esteem  and  disuse,  in  so  far  as  promotions  are  made 
dependent  upon  them.^  The  final  examination,  at  its  best, 
is  not  a  conclusive  test  of  the  pupils'  fitness  or  unfitness 
to  proceed.     A  final  examination  should  never  count  as 

*  See   Roark's   "  Method   in   Education,"   p.    92. 

2 "  Promotions    and    Examinations,"     (White),    Circular    of    Information 
No.    7,    1 87 1,    Bureau    of    Education,    Washington. 


THE  CURRICULUM  221 

more  than  half,  if  so  much,  in  the  making  up  of  "  pass- 
ing ''  records.  In  not  a  few  schools  the  examination  for 
promotion  has  been  abandoned  altogether,  and  the  pupils 
are  advanced  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  teacher, 
indorsed  by  the  principal. 

Promotion  Intervals. —  Reclassifications  and  promo- 
tions should  be  made  often  enough  to  enable  the  brightest 
pupils  to  forge  ahead  as  fast  as  their  superior  ability  will 
carry  them  and  also  to  enable  the  most  backward  pupils 
to  move  as  slowly  as  they  need  to  do  in  order  to  a  confi- 
dent mastery  of  their  work. 

As  suggested  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  the  school  year, 
which  should  be  forty-eight  weeks  long,  may  conveniently 
be  divided  into  four  terms,  and  these  may  be  used  as  pro- 
motion periods.  When  by  the  end  of  a  term,  any  con- 
siderable number  of  pupils  in  a  given  grade  show  marked 
superiority  to  their  fellows  who  started  with  them  in  the 
same  grade  they  should  be  moved  up  a  whole  term  (one- 
fourth  of  a  year).  As  the  pupils  of  the  advanced  term 
should  be  reviewing  at  the  beginning  of  that  term,  the 
newly  promoted  pupils  will  have  but  little  difiiculty  in 
catching  step  with  them  and  keeping  the  pace  throughout 
the  term. 

At  the. close  of  any  given  year,  the  strongest  pupils 
should  be  called  out  from  all  the  grades  of  the  same  rank 
and  put  into  a  division  to  themselves,  with  a  teacher  who 
can  send  them  forward  as  they  ought  to  go.  Such  a 
group  of  pupils  would  be  able  in  a  year  to  overtake  a 
grade  two  years  ahead  of  them  at  the  time  of  starting. 
Thus,  the  strong  group  that  would  start  separate  work 
at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  would  be  able  at  the 
end  of  a  year  to  unite  with  the  fifth  year  pupils  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  year.     An  arrangement  similar  to  that 


222        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

just  described  has  been  in  force  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  for 
many  years. 

The  plan  may  be  better  understood  from  the  accom- 
panying diagram  and  explanations,  taken  from  the  Report 
of  the  Cambridge  Schools  for  1902 : 

"  In  the  grammar  schools  special  teachers  are  appointed 
to  help  such  pupils  as  seem  able  to  do  the  work  in  less 
than  six  years,  and  to  aid  those  who  without  personal  in- 
struction would  require  more  than  six  years.  This  action 
of  the  committee  iemoves  the  most  serious  objection  to 
the  graded  system  of  schools. 

"  The  course  of  study  is  divided  in  two  ways :  ( i )  into 
six  sections ;  (2)  into  four  sections ;  each  section  covering 
a  year's  work.  Pupils  taking  the  course  in  six  years  are 
classified  in  six  grades,  called  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades.  Those  taking  it  in 
four-  years  are  classified  in  four  grades,  called  grades 
A,  B,  C,  and  D.  When  pupils  are  promoted  to  the  gram- 
mar schools  they  begin  the  first  year's  work  together. 
After  two  or  three  months  they  are  separated  into  two 
divisions. 

I         Grade^A.        I         Grade  B.         I        Grade  C.         I         Qt:ade  P. 


^^Grad^^^^^Qjad^^l 


-{►4  yeacs 


Li^S  years 


-^5  years 
-^6  years 


I"      r      r       r   ^  I 

Fifth       I      Sixth       ■    Se-vent'h    I      eiig-hth     ■      Nlilnigh      ■ 
Grade  Grade  Grade  Grade  Grade 

"  One  division  advances  more  rapidly  than  the  other, 
and  during  the  year  completes  one  fourth  of  the  whole 
course  of  study.  The  other  division  completes  one  sixth 
of  the  course. 


THE  CURRICULUM  223 

*'  During  the  second  year  the  pupils  in  grade  B  are  in 
the  same  room  with  the  sixth  grade.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  year  they  are  five  months  (one  half  the  school  year) 
behind  those  in  the  sixth  grade.  After  two  or  three 
months,  grade  B  is  able  to  recite  with  the  sixth  grade, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  both  divisions  have  completed 
one  half  the  course  of  study  —  the  one  in  two  years,  and 
the  other  in  three  years.  The  plan  for  the  last  half  of 
the  course  is  the  same  as  for  the  first  half,  the  grades 
being  known  as  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  in  the  one 
case,  and  as  C  and  D  in  the  other. 

"  There  are  also  two  ways  of  completing  the  course  in 
five  years :  ( i )  any  pupil  who  has  completed  one  half  the 
course  in  two  years  may  at  the  end  of  that  time 
be  transferred  to  the  seventh  grade,  and  finish 
the  course  in  three  years ;  (2)  any  pupil  who  has  com- 
pleted one  half  the  course  in  three  years  may  at  the 
end  of  that  time  be  transferred  to  grade  C,  and  finish  the 
course  in  two  years.  In  both  cases  these  changes  can  be 
made  without  omitting  or  repeating  any  part  of  the 
course." 

Recently,  much  interest  has  been  taken  in  the  "  Ba- 
tavia  experiment "  in  aiding  the  progress  of  backward 
and  slow  pupils.^  The  plan,  in  brief,  is  to  place  two 
teachers  in  a  room,  one. to  conduct  recitations  in  the 
usual  way,  the  other  to  give  individual  assistance  to  the 
pupils  in  their  study.  The  reports  of  results  so  far  ob- 
tained are  favorable  to  the  plan. 

Time  in  the  High  School  and  College. —  But  it  is  by 
no  means  solely  in  the  elementary  school  that  time  is 
wasted.     The  waste  goes  on  quite  as  much  in  the  second- 

1  See  the  Reports  of  Supt.  Jno.  Kennedy,  Batavia,  N.  Y.  Also  the 
Journal  of  Pedagogy    14:   89,   130;   and   16:    i. 


224       ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

ary  school  and  college  as  in  the  grades.  Tradition  has 
made  a  sort  of  fetich  of  the  four  year  period,  and  in  spite 
of  the  group  system  in  a  few  high  schools  and  colleges 
and  the  strong  recommendations  of  Eliot  and  Butler  to 
shorten  the  time  spent  in  college,  all  classes  of  school 
officials  seem  fearful  of  results  if  the  four  year  course 
be  given  up  or  modified. 

But  the  same  opportunities  for  rapid  work  and  prompt 
advancement  should  be  given  in  the  higher  institutions 
as  in  the  elementary  schools,  though  in  a  different  way. 
In  the  grades  the  pupils  are  grouped ;  in  the  high  school 
and  college  the  studies  should  be  grouped  according  to 
the  laws  of  real  correlation,  and  students  encouraged  to 
take  more  or  fewer  groups  at  a  time,  according  to  their 
capacity.  A  certain  number  of  groups  should  constitute 
the  requirement  for  graduation,  and  the  student  should 
receive  his  diploma  upon  the  satisfactory  completion  of 
the  required  number  of  groups,  whether  it  has  taken  him 
two  years  or  ten  to  complete  them.  It  is  true,  such  an 
arrangement  would  do  away  with  the  classes  —  freshman, 
sophomore,  etc. —  and  with  class  spirit,  class  "  rushes," 
and  such  medisevalisms,  but  such  losses  would  be  a  great 
gain. 

The  School  Year.—  The  greatest  saving  of  time,  how- 
ever, greatest  because  time  is  saved  to  all,  whether  dull 
or  bright,  is  that  secured  through  the  lengthening  of  the 
school  year.  Most  private  normal  schools  are  ppen  forty- 
eight  weeks  in  the  year ;  many  state  normal  schools  have 
a  summer  term;  Chicago  University  has  four  regular 
quarters  (forty-eight  weeks),  and  the  older  universities 
are  adopting  practically  the  same  plan,  by  holding  "  sum- 
mer schools.''  The  experience  of  these  institutions,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  cities  that  have  vacation  schools. 


THE  CURRICULUM  22^ 

has  demonstrated  the  great  value  of  a  longer  school  year. 

If  the  teaching  be  of  the  right  sort,  and  adapted  to  the 
seasons,  the  summer,  for  example,  being  availed  of  for 
nature  study  and  school  gardening,  the  pupils  will  be 
happier  and  healthier  in  school  than  out. 

As  for  the  teachers  and  students  in  high  school  and 
college,  there  appears  no  sufficient  reason  why  they  should 
need  a  longer  vacation  than  other  brain  workers. 

A  Bachelor's  Course  of  Three  Years. —  If  the  higher 
institutions  which  offer  courses  leading  to  bachelors'  de- 
grees should  adopt  the  four-term  plan,  there  could  be  no 
complaint  from  any  quarter  at  their  granting  the  bache- 
lor's degree  at  the  end  of  three  years,  for  the  actual  time 
spent  in  course  would  be  the  same  as  under  the  prevailing 
four-year  plan.  Under  a  combination  of  the  group  sys- 
tem and  the  four-term  plan,  a  good  student  could  in  two 
years  satisfy  all  legitimate  requirements  for  a  bachelor's 
degree.  The  needs  of  others,  who  would  require  more 
than  two  years  and  less  than  three  for  the  completion  of 
a  course,  could  be  met  by  holding  semi-annual  commence- 
ments. This  plan,  or  some  modification  of  it,  has  been 
used  successfully  by  institutions  as  diverse  in  aims  and 
methods  of  work  as  private  normal  schools  and  Chicago 
University.  With  the  passing  of  the  traditions  of  a  four- 
year  course  and  an  annual  commencement  will  pass  also 
much  wasting  of  the  time  and  energy  of  the  student. 
(d)  Educational  Experimentation 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  most  speaking  and  writing 
upon  educational  administration  is  largely  theoretical. 
The  questions  have  usually  been  approached  from  the 
a  priori  standpoint,  and  therefore  education  is  not  yet  a 
science. 

But  it  is  clear  that  in  education  as  in  everything  else, 

Roark's  Econ. — 15 


226        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

the  scientific  method  of  advance  is  the  only  one  from 
which  real  results  may  be  expected.  Hence  the  impera- 
tive need  of  broad  observation,  experimentation,  and  in- 
duction. The  only  way  to  determine  whether  a  plan  of 
school  administration  is  workable  is  to  work  it  for  a 
sufficiently  long  period  of  time,  and  carefully  to  note  re- 
sults. There  has  been  more  or  less  conscious  experimen- 
tation in  the  past  decade  or  so,  but  it  has  been  too 
sporadic,  too  brief,  and  its  results  too  little  tested  and 
verified  by  others  to  make  it  of  much  value. 

Educational  Observation. —  In  order  to  secure  facts 
upon  which  to  base  intelligent  experimentation,  much  ob- 
servation of  prevailing  educational  methods  should  be 
done.  Such  observation  has  been  carried  on  over  a  large 
area  by  the  General  Education  Board,  and  the  data  are 
published  in  "  Southern  Education,"  Knoxville,  Tenn.^ 
Similar  work  in  individual  schools  has  been  going  on 
actively  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Rice,  Director  of 
the  Society  of  Educational  Research.  These  and  many 
other  observations  on  actual  school,  work  and  its  results 
should  be  carefully  tabulated  and  digested  by  a  committee 
of  experts,  appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, and  the  conclusions  published  widely.  The  com- 
mittee should  also  recommend,  from  year  to  year,  certain 
definite  experiments  to  be  made. 

Practical  Difficulties. —  Several  practical  difficulties 
lie  in  the  way  of  thorough  educational  experimentation. 
Of  these,  educational  conservatism  is  perhaps  the  chief. 
School  boards,  superintendents,  and  patrons  all  dislike  or 
fear  to  leave  the  beaten  track. 

Short  tenure  of  office  by  boards  and  superintendents  is 
another  obstacle.     It  is  safe  to  say  that  trustworthy  re- 

^  See  Review  of  Reviews,  30:   327. 


THE  CURRICULUM  227 

suits  can  not  be  reached  in  a  shorter  time  than  five  years, 
because  the  true  test  of  a  method  of  teaching  or  of  school 
administration  is  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  pupil's  later 
work. 

Still  another  difficulty  is  the  impossibility  of  securing 
identity  of  conditions  in  different  schools,  or  even  in  the 
case  of  different  pupils  of  the  same  grade.  In  the  phys- 
ical laboratory,  identity  of  conditions,  of  apparatus,  of 
manipulation,  is  required  and  is  easily  obtained.  It  can 
not  be  so  in  the  educational  laboratory.  Nevertheless, 
much  valuable  experimentation  can  and  should  be  done 
in  school  work.  As  has  been  suggested  by  Hanus, 
every  system  of  schools  may  be  made  an  "  experiment 
station,''  where  careful  and  sympathetic  investigation  can 
be  carried  on. 

All  schools  that  have,  or  can  secure,  the  means  for 
such  work  should  keep  a  card  record  of  the  post  school 
life  of  all  the  pupils  that  leave  the  school  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  year  or  after.  Some  arrangement  should 
be  made  by  which  such  pupils  may  be  heard  from  at  least 
once  a  year.  The  proper  keeping  of  such  a  record  would 
be  an  enormous  task,  but  in  no  other  way  can  data  be 
collected  from  which  to  draw  trustworthy  conclusions 
as  to  the  value  of  different  modes  of  school  administra- 
tion, different  methods  of  teaching,  and  the  relative  in- 
fluence of  environment,  heredity,  and  schooling. 

Educational  Bulletins. —  Just  as  the  results  of  the  ex- 
periments made  at  the  various  agricultural  experiraent 
stations  throughout  the  U.  S.  are  sent  out  in  regularly 
issued  bulletins  to  thousands  of  farmers  every  month,  so 
should  the  processes  and  results  of  educational  experi- 
ments be  sent  out  free  to  every  school  interested  in  the  ' 
particular    experiments    reported.     Such    bulletins    are 


228        ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

issued  and  distributed  by  several  States,  notably  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Wisconsin,  and  the  National  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion at  Washington  has  an  enormous  mailing  list  for  its 
incomparable  reports.  But  what  is  needed  is  that  every 
superintendent  and  principal  in  the  United  States  shall 
receive  at  short  intervals  clear  reports  of  actual  work 
being  done  in  educational  experiments.  Those  engaged 
in  the  actual  work  of  teaching  should  be  given  every  en- 
couragement to  undertake  a  verification  of  results  reacfied 
by  experiment  already  made,  and  to  report  results  care- 
fully and  fully  to  some  central  authority.  Further,  no 
good  reason  appears  why  the  Federal  Government  should 
not  extend  the  franking  privilege  to  such  bulletins,  under 
the  same  conditions  as  now  govern  the  mailing  of  agri- 
cultural bulletins.  • 


III.    CORRELATION    OF    SCHOOL   AND    COM- 
MUNITY 

(i)  THE  INSTITUTIONAL  FACTORS  OF  EDU- 
CATION 

As  previously  said,  education  is,  according  to  its  organ- 
ization, formal  or  informal.  Formal  education  is  carried 
on  by  specialized  agencies  and,  as  the  term  indicates, 
under  definite  forms. 

The  chief  institution  established  by  the  community  for 
formal  education  is  the  school;  but  other  institutional 
factors  have  great  importance.  Oi  these,  the  most  effec- 
tive are  (i)  the  home;  (2)  the  church,  including  the 
Sunday  school;  (3)  the  press;  (4)  the  platform.  The 
home  is  placed  in  this  list,  because,  although  it  can  hardly 
be  claimed  as  an  institution  primarily  established  for  edu- 
cative purposes,  yet  its  development  and  training  of  the 
young  are  largely  formal  and  of  the  first  importance. 
Other  agencies  which  now  are  best  classed  as  informal  — 
such  as  the  library,  the  museum,  and  the  art  gallery,  are 
rapidly  being  brought  into  the  list  of  formal  factors.  On 
the  other  hand,  all  those  classed  as  formal  exert  great  in- 
fluence in  informal  ways, —  that  is,  without  definite  teach- 
ing purpose,  but  through  their  own  suggestive  influence 
and  the  imitativeness  of  the  young. 

As  the  tide  of  popular  interest  in  education  rises,  the 

conviction  grows  that  all  institutions  which   make   for 

the  higher  life  of  the  community  may  be  brought  into  the 

229 


230  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

service  of  formal,  purposive  education.  It  is  certain,  also 
that  the  educative  efficiency  of  these  institutions  is  greatly 
increased  if  they  work  in  sympathetic  cooperation  with 
one  another.  Too  often  the  home  and  the  school  are  not 
in  cordial  sympathy;  the  church  berates  the  school,  and 
the  school  is  indifferent  to  the  church,  and  both  decry  the 
stage ;  rich  libraries  have  scarcely  a  tenth  of  their  educa- 
tive value  used,  and  that  in  only  a  desultory  way,  while 
art  galleries  and  museums  are  used  merely  as  "  show '' 
places.  This  sort  of  waste  will  cease,  when  a  community 
comes  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  specific  value  of 
each  of  these  factors  in  the  work  of  education,  and  that 
neither  has  cause  for  jealousy  or  indifference  regarding 
the  others. 

The  school  is  naturally  the  center  around  which  all 
other  factors  can  be  most  effectively  grouped. 

(2)  CORRELATION  OF  OTHER  FACTORS  WITH 
THE  SCHOOL^ 

A.  The  Home  with  the  School 

There  are  thousands  of  parents,  not  only  in  the  large 
cities  but  in  the  smaller  towns  and  the  country  as  well, 
who  have  never  visited  the  schools  which  their  children 
attend  and  do  not  even  know  their  children's  teachers  at 
sight. 

The  Teacher's  Visit  to  the  Home. —  To  overcome  the 
indifference  of  the  home  to  the  school,  the  teacher  must 
take  the  initiative  and  visit  the  homes,  all  of  them  if  possi- 
ble, certainly  those  where  her  coming  is  most  needed. 
Nor  must  her  visits  be  perfunctory  or  intrusive;  in  no 
instance  is  it  truer  that  "  the  letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit 
maketh  alive.''     Only  through  such  sympathetic  contact, 

*  Refer  to  Button's  "  Social   Phases  of   Education.'* 


CORRELATION  OF  OTHER  FACTORS  231 

as  this  should  be,  with  the  parents  and  the  children  in  the 
home,  can  the  teacher  learn  the  conditions  which  account 
for  much  of  the  pupil's  intellectual  and  moral  activity  or 
deficiency.  Also,  in  no  other  way  so  well  can  the  home 
be  brought  to  a  sympathetic  response  to  the  demands 
which  the  school  may  legitimately  make  upon  it.  The 
"  personal  touch/'  if  genuinely  sympathetic,  always  wins. 
Among  the  patrons  of  the  school  there  will  most  proba- 
bly be  some  whom,  on  account  of  their  social  position,  the 
teacher  should  not  visit  without  an  invitation.  In  such 
cases,  the  duty  and  responsibility  of  bringing  the  home 
into  sympathetic  correlation  with  the  school  rests  upon 
the  patrons,  not  the  teacher.  It  seems  clear  that  a  public 
school  teacher  may  have  to  teach  children  of  homes  she 
would  never  visit  in  a  social  way,  and  equally  clear  that 
no  parent  should  send  his  children  to  a  teacher  whom  he 
would  be  unwilling  to  have  in  his  home  as  a  social  visitor. 
If  parents  should  invite  to  their  homes  the  teachers  of 
their  children,  and  make  them  welcome  there,  only  good 
could  result. 

The  School  Nurse. —  In  some  of  the  larger  cities,  the 
board  of  education  provides  school  nurses  and  medical 
inspectors,  and  these  officials  are  helpful  in  bringing  the 
home  and  the  school  into  sympathetic  relation.  The  nurse 
visits  the  school  daily,  inspects  the  children,  gives  imme- 
diate aid  where  only  something  simple  is  needed,  and 
indicates  the  cases  that  seem  to  require  examination  by 
the  medical  inspector.  She  goes  to  the  homes  of  the 
children  that  must,  for  sanitary  reasons,  be  sent  away 
from  school  for  awhile,  makes  suggestions  as  to  their  care, 
helps  the  mothers,  and  sees  that  the  chidren  get  back  into 
school  as  soon  as  they  are  able.  This  sort  of  work  forges 
a  strong  link  between  the  home  and  the  school. 


232  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

"  Mothers'  Meetings." —  Regular  meetings  in  which 
teachers  and  mothers  confer  together  about  the  needs  of 
the  children  and  the  work  of  the  school,  have  proved  to 
be  a  potent  factor  in  strengthening  the  hold  of  the  school 
upon  the  home.  Such  meetings  smooth  away  mutual  mis- 
understandings, show  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  mother 
each  other's  view  point,  enlist  the  sympathy  of  each  in 
the  work  and  trials  of  the  other,  and  bring  school  and 
home  into  intelligent  cooperation.  The  home  will  gain 
an  appreciation  of  what  the  school  is  trying  to  do  and  of 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  doing  it.  The  school  will 
learn  that  the  homes  have^  rights  and  limitations  which 
must  be  considered  and  regarded.  The  good  resulting: 
from  such  meetings  and  conferences  will  be  greatly  in- 
creased if  parents  will  visit  the  school  and  inspect  its 
work. 

Parents'  Visits  to  the  School. —  School  officials  and 
teachers  should  use  every  effort  to  arouse  in  parents  an 
interest  in  the  work  being  done  for  their  children,  suffi- 
cient to  induce  them  to  visit  the  schools  often.  Such  visits 
will  do  much  to  convince  both  teacher  and  parent  that 
neither  can  do  the  best  for  the  pupil  without  the  help  of 
the  other.  The  parent  will  be  aroused  to  greater  interest 
in  the  work  of  the  child,  and  the  teacher  will  feel  a  more 
personal  concern  in  each  pupil. 

Anything  is  good  which  brings  the  teacher  and 
the  parents  into  closer  touch,  gives  the  parents  a 
clearer  comprehension  of  what  the  school  is  doing 
and  leads  the  teacher  to  a  deeper  appreciation  of  home 
conditions. 

Mutual  understanding  and  sympathy,  and  easier  work 
for  both  the  school  and  the  home,  always  result  from  this 
correlation. 


CORRELATION  OF  OTHER  FACTORS  233 

B.  The  Library  with  the  School  ^ 
No  other  factor,  outside  the  home  and  the  school,  is  so 
potent  for  right  education  as  the  pubHc  Hbrary.     This 
fact  is  being  recognized  and  pressed  home  to-day  upon 
school  superintendents  and  librarians  as  never  before. 

The  school,  of  course,  should  always  have  a  library  of 
its  own ;  even  in  each  room  there  should  be  a  few  selected 
books  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  teacher  and  pupils  in 
that  room.  But  the  school  can  not  afford  all  the  books 
that  are  needed,  and  the  public  library,  which  must  do 
much  for  culture  in  the  after-school  life,  should  be 
brought  into  close  cooperation  with  the  school.  Such 
cooperation  enlists  the  interest  of  the  whole  community  in 
both  the  library  and  the  school,  and  directs  the  young  to 
the  richer  field  for  the  cultivation  of  which  the  school  is 
only  a  preparation. 

Each  School  a  Branch  Library. —  The  best  arrange- 
ment is  one  by  which  the  library  comes  into  the  school, 
and  through  the  school  into  the  home.  To  this  end,  every 
school,  whether  in  country  or  city,  should  be  made  a 
branch  library  for  the  distribution  of  books.  The  rural 
schools  should  be  supplied  from  the  state  department  of 
education.  This  is  the  general  plan  in  Ohio,  for  example. 
Any  board  of  school  directors  can  make  a  requisition 
upon  the  state  librarian  for  thirty  or  forty  books,  which 
can  be  kept,  if  desired,  for  three  months.  No  expense 
is  incurred  by  the  local  school  authorities,  except  for 
transportation.  In  the  cities,  the  same  plan  can  more 
easily  be  carried  out. 

^Report  of  the  Com.  on  Libraries,  N.  E.  A.,  1899;  Proceedings  of  N. 
E.  A.,  1897:  1015;  1900:  6z(>',  and  1901:  108;  Report  of  Nat.  Commissioner 
of  Ed.,  1897—8:  673;  Educational  Review  8:  358;  Review  of  Reviews 
22:  48,  56;  The  Outlook  70:  420;  Atlantic  Monthly  90:  402;  Reports  and 
Bulletins  of  the  Carnegie  Library,   Pittsburgh. 


234  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  Teacher  and  the  Library. —  The  books  sent  to 
the  several  schools  should  be  selected  for  that  purpose 
by  the  teacher,  who  must,  of  course,  know  what  books 
are  suited  to  the  needs  of  her  pupils.  The  only  way  in 
which  the  teactjer  can  gain  this  knowledge  is  by  reading 
the  books ;  she  must  be  able  to  say,  "  I  have  read  this  book 
myself,  and  I  know  it  will  interest  you." 

It  is,  in  fact,  an  excellent  plan  for  the  teacher,  in  order 
to  create  or  stimulate  the  children's  appetite  for  good 
books,  to  read  to  them.  A  half  hour  or  hour  spent  in  this 
way  once  or  twice  a  week  will  be  most  fruitful.  Often, 
an  appreciation  of  what  help  and  pleasure  a  book  may 
give  comes  to  the  child  only  through  the  teacher's  sympa- 
thetic reading  aloud  of  carefully  selected  matter. 

The  teacher  should  be  a  frequent  visitor  to  the  public 
library,  and  should  familiarize  herself  thoroughly  with 
its  resources.  From  the  knowledge  gained  in  this  way 
she  should  prepare  lists  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  maga- 
zine articles,  for  collateral  reading  by  her  pupils,  in  his- 
tory, geography,  civics,  and  literature.  Indeed,  such  lists 
may  be  prepared  in  almost  every  subject  pursued  in  the 
grades  or  in  th^  high  school. 

The  public  library  should  also  do  much  for  the  teacher 
herself.  There  should  be  a  teachers"'  alcove,  filled  with 
the  best  books  and  periodicals  on  child  study,  educational 
psychology,  method,  and  history  of  education.  If  possi- 
ble, there  should  also  be  a  special  room  set  aside  for  the 
exclusive  use  of  the  teachers. 

C.     Museums  with  the  School. 

In  cities,  the  schools  are  just  beginning  to  utilize  the 
free  museums  for  the  purposes  of  formal  education.  The 
more  closely  the  museum  is  brought  into  correlation  with 


CORRELATION  OF  OTHER  FACTORS  235 

the  schools,  the  more  apparent  the  advantages  of  such  an 
arrangement  become. 

The  Museum  Brought  to  the  School. —  As  the  library 
sends  books  to  the  school  to  be  used  there  in  the  daily 
work,  so  the  museum  may  send  specimens  to  the  school 
to  be  used  in  various  ways.  Small  and  simple  illustra- 
tive cabinets,  made  up  of  either  real  specimens  or  repro- 
ductions, may  be  sent  into  the  schools  for  work  in  the 
numerous  forms  of  nature  study.  Simple  type  forms  in 
botany,  zoology,  and  mineralogy  would  be  of  great  value, 
even  in  the  grades,  and  more  particularly  in  the  analytico- 
synthetic  presentation  of  high-school  subjects. 

In  the  museums  of  the  larger  cities  there  is  abundant 
material  by  which  to  make  real  and  concrete  the  dif- 
ferent epochs  of  history,  including  the  much  neglected 
but  especially  rich  field  of  science  and  invention. 

The  School  Taken  to  the  Museum. —  Classes  in  the 
various  subjeAs  indicated  above  should  be  taken  often 
to  the  museum  for  a  more  careful  and  complete  study  of 
subject-matter  and  illustrative  material  than  is  possible 
with  specimens  suitable  to  be  sent  by  the  museum  to  the 
school.  In  this  way,  too,  as  in  the  case  of  the  public 
library,  the  young  citizens  learn  to  use  and  to  appreciate 
the  educational  resources  of  the  community  outside  the 
school.  If  the  citizen  does  not  learn  this  use  and  appre- 
ciation when  a  child  he  will  not  be  apt  to  do  so  when 
grown,  and  so  the  chief  value  of  public  libraries  and 
museums  will  be  greatly  diminished. 

D.    Art  Galleries  with  the  School 

It  is  not  needful  here  to  add  anything  to  what  has  been 
so  often  said  of  late  years  about  the  value  of  an  appre- 
ciation of  art.     Certain  it  is  that  we  shall  not  have  beauty 


236  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

abundant  in  the  home,  in  the  school,  and  in  the  city 
street,  until  a  generation  shall  be  raised  up  that  shall 
understand  and  enjoy  the  beauty  of  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture. 

It  is  as  much  the  business  of  the  public  school  to  culti- 
vate the  understanding  and  enjoyment  of  art  as  it  is  its 
business  to  cultivate  the  understanding  and  enjoyment  of 
literature. 

But  few  schools  can  afford  the  pictures  needed  for  a 
training  in  the  appreciation  of  art,  and  hence  the  need 
of  bringing  the  public  art  gallery  or  the  private  collec- 
tion into  correlation  with  the  school. 

Lending  Pictures  to  the  School. —  As  the  free  library 
of  to-day  sends  selected  books  into  the  schools,  there  to 
afford  knowledge  and  inspiration  and  culture,  so  the  pub- 
lic art  gallery  sends  selected  pictures  into  the  schools  for 
the  same  purpose.  Some  of  the  pictures  thus  loaned  may 
be  wall  pictures,  and  others  in  the  form  of  engravings, 
photographs,  and  cuts,  contained  in  portfolios.  They 
should  all  be  selected  with  a  definite  purpose  to  illustrate 
and  make  more  attractive  some  particular  line  of  study 
or  reading,  or  simply  to  appeal  as  strongly  as  possible  to 
the  aesthetic  and  artistic  instinct. 

The  School  in  the  Art  Gallery. —  The  plan  so  success- 
fully used  at  the  Carnegie  Institute  in  Pittsburgh  may  be 
made  effective  wherever  there  is  a  public  art  gallery  or  a 
private  collection  to  which  access  is  permitted.  At  the 
opening  of  the  schools,  the  teachers  are  invited  to  the  Art 
Department  of  the  Institute  and  there  have  the  beauty 
and  the  purpose  of  the  best  pictures  explained  by  the  di- 
rector or  some  of  his  staff.  Groups  of  pupils  are  also 
taken  by  their  teachers,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  gallery 
and  are  taught  what  to  see  and  how  to  see.     Occasional 


CORRELATION  OF  OTHER  FACTORS  237 

informal  lectures  upon  different  phases  of  art  are  given 
to  teachers  and  pupils.  In  such  ways  is  the  value  of  the 
art  gallery  increased  to  the  schools  and  to  coming  genera- 
tions of  adults. 

E.  The  Press  with  the  School 

No  institution  in  America  is  quite  so  clearly  or  def- 
initely in  the  focus  of  popular  regard  to-day  as  is  the 
public  school.  Never  before  has  the  news  and  .periodical 
press  devoted  so  much  space  to  the  discussion  of  this  and 
other  agencies  of  popular  education.  Schoolmen  every- 
where should  be  quick  to  avail  themselves  of  this  oppor- 
tunity to  promote  a  real  economy  of  educational  forces, 
by  bringing  the  willing  press  into  closer  correlation  with 
the  schools  and  their  work. 

The  superintendent  can  do  no  better  thing  for  his 
schools  or  for  his  community  than  to  furnish  to  the  local 
papers  weekly,  or  even  daily,  reports  of  the  condition  of 
the  schools  and  the  work  they  are  actually  doing.  If  the 
board  of  education  is  wise  it  will  heartily  cooperate  with 
the  superintendent  in  this  work  and  will  furnish  full 
reports  of  its  own  official  acts.  The  people  are  entitled 
to  know  what  their  own  schools  are  doing,  and  the  papers 
are  usually  glad  to  publish  the  facts  and  to  support  good 
work. 

F.  The  Pulpit  with  the  School. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country,  where  most  earnest 
efforts  are  being  made  to  arouse  popular  interest  in  pub- 
lic education,  the  cooperation  of  the  pulpit  has  been  en- 
listed. The  ministers,  throughout  a  given  area,  all 
preach  on  the  same  day  upon  some  theme  directly  related 
to  the  work  of  the  schools  and  their  needs.  The  plan  has 
already  proved  its  value  and  is  being  widely  adopted. 


238  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

(3)  PROJECTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  INTO  THE 
COMMUNITY 

A.      SCHOOLHOUSES  AS  COMMUNITY  CENTERS 

Practically  everywhere,  except  in  a  few  large  cities, 
schoolhouses  stand  unused  from  three  to  five  months 
out  of  every  year,  and  during  the  time  they  are  in  service, 
are  used  only  for  the  teaching  of  children.  Educational 
economy  calls  loudly  for  the  prevention  of  the  waste  re- 
sulting from  this  condition.  Every  schoolhouse  should 
be  used  as  a  community  center  of  education.  It  need  not 
be  considered  as  even  primarily  for  the  children  of  the 
community;  it  exists  quite  as  much  for  the  adults  also. 
Nothing  will  do  more  to  carry  forward  into  adulthood 
that  impulse  to  study  and  to  the  intellectual  life,  which 
it  is  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  school  to  give,  than 
the  use  of  the  schoolhouse  as  a  nucleus  and  rallying  point 
for  various  neighborhood  interests,  literary  societies,  won^- 
en's  clubs,  farmers'  institutes,  reading  circles,  lectuni 
courses,  in  short,  everything  not  of  a  partisan  or  sectarian 
character.  Every  schoolhouse,  whether  in  country  oir 
town,  should  be  planned  and  built  with  this  wider  use  in 
view.  There  should  be  ample  seating  faciHties  and  ade- 
quate means  of  artificial  lighting. 

The  plan  of  "  consolidating  schools  and  transporting 
pupils "  lends  itself  well  to  this  larger  usefulness  of 
schoolhouses.  The  vehicles  *  used  for  conveying  children 
to  school  may  be  used  to  convey  the  older  pupils  tod  the 
adults  to  the  schoolhouse  on  Saturdays  or  Sundays,  or 
at  night. 

The  "  Hesperia  Movement." —  The  form  of  coopera- 
tion  known  as  the  ''  Hesperia  movement  "  is  typical  of  the 
modern  projection  of  the  school  into  the  rural  commun- 


PROJECTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


239 


ity^  and  is  suggestive  of  other  modes  of  organizing  the 
intellectual  and  social  forces  of  a  neighborhood  around 
the  school. 

This  movement,  named  from  the  place  of  its  origin, 
(Hesperia,  Michigan,)  has  most  successfully  brought' 
teachers  and  patrons  in  the  rural  districts  into  close  and 
helpful  educational  and  social  cooperation.  In  some  cases 
meetings  occur  only  once  a  year,  in  others,  every  month, 
or  oftener.  At  these  meetings  papers  are  read  by  teachers 
and  patrons,  there  are  discussions  not  only  of  educational 
matters  but  of  other  live  topics  of  the  day,  and  often  the 
meetings  are  addressed  by  lecturers  of  national  reputa- 
tion. Special  reading  courses  are  also  carried  on,  and  use 
is  made  of  every  means  of  intellectual  and  social  culture. 

There  is  hardly  a  rural  community  in  the  United  States 
where  something  of  this  sort  may  not  be  done,  on  a  larger 
or  smaller  scale^  with  the  people's  schoolhouse  as  a  center 
and  meeting  place. 

In  Cities. —  It  is  easier  in  cities  than  in  the  coun- 
try to  make  the  schoolhouse  a  community  center.  It  has 
been  recommended,  as  a  measure  of  economy,  that  when 
a  city  schoolhouse  is  built,  a  small  auditorium  to  ac- 
commodate five  or  six  hundred  persons  be  incorporated 
in  it.  It  would  add  but  little  to  the  total  cost  to 
include  also  in  the  building  a  room  suitable  for  a  small 
public  library  and  reading  room.  Wherever  these  addi- 
tions are  made  to  the  facilities  which  a  community  offers 
for  adult  education,  it  may  be  expected  that,  in  answer  to 
a  popular  demand,  other  rooms  will  be  provided  in  pub- 
lic school  buildings  for  neighborhood  clubs,  for  adult 
classes  in  the  elements  of  domestic  science,  for  various 
forms  of  manual  training  for  adults,  and  for  night  classes. 

^  See    Review    of    Reviews,    Vol.    23,   p.   443. 


240  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

But  there  is  no  need  to  wait  until  this  more  genuine 
economy  has  reached  the  pockets  of  the  taxpayers,  in  or- 
der to  use  pubHc  school  buildings  in  the  wider  service. 
Under  watchful  but  sympathetic  supervision  the  ordinary 
grade  rooms  of  any  school  building  may  be  used  for  all 
the  purposes  named  above,  except  the  heavier  forms  of 
manual  training;  and  even  these  are  being  provided  for 
in  most  schools  that  give  their  pupils  the  advantage  of 
the  best  courses  of  study. 

The  idea  which  has  so  long  held  sway,  that  the  school- 
houses  are  for  the  use  of  children  only,  is  false  and  per- 
nicious, and  has  been  the  cause  of  appalling  educational 
waste.  If  it  is  advisable  to  support,  at  great  cost,  by  pub- 
lic taxation,  universities  for  the  education  of  adults  who 
have  already  had  all  that  public  elementary  and  secondary 
education  can  give  them,  surely  it  is  simple  justice  for  the 
state  or  city  to  provide  other  adults,  at  far  less  expense, 
with  opportunities  and  facilities  for  the  education  which 
they  were  compelled,  as  children,  to  forego. 

B.    Public  Playgrounds  and  Vacation  Schools 

Cautiously  and  with  misgivings,  the  school  authorities 
of  New  York  and  other  cities  yielded  to  the  urgent  re- 
quest of  private  philanthropic  organizations,  that  the  play- 
grounds and  play  rooms  of  the  public  schools  be  opened 
in  the  vacation  months  for  directed  play  and  other  forms 
of  outdoor  education.  Now,  in  these  cities  such  use  of 
school  playgrounds,,  recreation  piers,  and  parks,  consti- 
tute an  integral  and  unquestioned  part  of  the  educational 
service  which  the  public  pays  for,  and  by  which  it  is 
benefited  even  more  than  by  the  regular  work  of  the 
schools.     If  vacation  schools  in  cities  did  no  more  than 


PROJECTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  241 

take  the  children  off  the  physically  and  morally  unhealth- 
ful  streets  during  a  part  of  the  summer,  they  would  be 
fully  justified.  These  schools  not  only  do  this,  but  they 
also  provide  instruction  and  training  in  the  several 
forms  of  manual  expression,  in  the  domestic  and  indus- 
trial arts,  and  are  used  as  centers  of  social  and  civic  life. 
They  offer  excellent^opportunities  for  experimental  work, 
and  in  them  various  problems  of  teaching  and  of  school 
administration  may  be  conclusively  tried  out.  What  has 
been  done  in  New  York  may  be  done  on  a  smaller 
scale,  but  quite  as  effectively,  wherever  a  few  determined 
spirits  unite  in  an  effort  to  apply,  in 'the  vacation  months, 
the  simpler  forms  of  formal  education  to  the  spontaneous 
activities,  physical  as  well  as  mental,  of  children.^ 

C.    Educational  Extension. 

Under  the  term  "  educational  extension  "  is  meant  here 
to  be  included  all  movements  having  for  their  object  the 
carrying  of  knowledge  or  culture  directly  to  the  people 
through  other  agencies  than  the  school  or  college.  The 
"  lyceum"  which  flourished  in  the  earlier  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  university  extension,  which  drew  so 
much  attention  in  the  last  quarter  bf  that  century,  the 
"  Chautauqua  movement,"  and  correspondence  instruction, 
are  all  types  of  educational  extension. 

The  Pupils  of  Educational  Extension. —  In  every 
community  there  are  persons  who,  through  force  of  cir- 
cumstances or  perversity  of  premature  choice,  have  had 

^  All  who  are  interested  in  this  subject  of  vacation  schools  and  playgrounds 
will  find  facts  and  suggestions  of  the  highest  value  in  the  references  here 
given :  The  latest  Report  on  Vacation  Schools  and  Play-grounds  in  N.,  Y. 
City;  Reports  on  the  same  subjects,  from  the  "  League  for  Social  Service,"  , 
N.  Y.  City;  Articles  upon  these  topics  in  Harper's  Magazine,  105:  22',  107: 
5^7;  Outlook  72:  30;  Independent  56:  165;  Pedagogical  Seminary  9:  237; 
Review  of  Reviews  16:  190;  17:  710;  Report  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of 
Education  (Wash.  D.  C),  '94-5,  Vol.  i,  p.  83,  Vol.  2,  p.  1484;  '97-8. 


242  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

only  an  elementary  education.  There  are  others  who 
have  had  the  higher  schooling,  but  whose  business  cares 
have  prevented  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  or  culture,  out- 
side of  their  vocation.  To  meet  the  needs  of  all  these, 
educational  extension  developed. 

The  work  that  has  been  carried  forward  in  New  York 
since  1891  is  so  illustrative  and  suggestive  that  a  brief 
description  of  it  is  given  as  an  excellent  example  of  true 
educational  economy.^ 

In  New  York. —  In  1891  the  state  of  New  York  appro- 
priated $10,000.00  to  the  work  of  University  Extension. 
The  agencies  of  this  extension  service  are  libraries,  ex- 
tension teaching  by  lectures  or  otherwise,  directed  home 
study,  and  summer  schools.  The  field  has  enlarged 
greatly  in  the  last- few  years,  and  now  these  factors  of 
intelligence  and  culture  reach  and  help  more  than  two 
millions  of  adults  annually  in  the  state  of  New  York. 

Lists  of  books,  outlines,  syllabi,  and  test  questions  on 
work  done  are  sent  out  to  the  remotest  hamlets.  Bulle- 
tins of  detailed  information  and  directions  are  sent  out 
from  Cornell  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  agricultural 
and  domestic  arts.  From  the  same  center  are  also  dis- 
tributed leaflets  to  teachers  and  others  interested  in  na- 
ture study.  University  and  college  professors,  high 
school  teachers,  and  any  others  who  can  arouse  interest, 
inpart  information,  or  deliver  a  message,  are  induced  to 
give  their  services,  at  a  nominal  cost,  in  lecturing  and 
teaching  outside  the  walls  of  their  schools. 

There  is,  under  the  control  of  the  state,  a  splendid  li- 
brary system,  with  both  fixed  and  traveling  libraries.^ 

*  Report  of  Nat.  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  1899—00,  i:  303;  World's  Work,  4, 
221 1 ;  5:  3327;  Bulletin  276,  University  of  the  State  of  N.  Y.  (in  N.  Y. 
City),   Forum   29:    332. 

2  Univ.  of  N.  Y.,  Home  Ed.  Dept.,  Bulletin  40,  Albany. 


PROJECTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  243 

One  of  the  most  valuable  features  of  the  New  York 
system  of  "  adult  education  "  is  the  traveling  lantern  lec- 
ture. Under  state  direction  and  at  state  expense  fine 
slides  are  made  illustrative  of  travel,  nature  study,  and 
historic  events,  and  these,  together  with  a  carefully  writ- 
ten lecture  and  a  complete  lantern  equipment,  are  loaned 
to  any  study  center  requesting  them  and  complying  with 
a  few  liberal  conditions. 

No  other  state  is  doing  so  much  for  the  dissemination 
of  intelligence  among  its  adult  citizens,  perhaps  no  other 
can  do  so  much.  But  there  is  no  school,  no  matter  how 
poor  or  where  situated,  that  can  not  become  a  center  of 
educational  extension  to  an  extent  proportionate  to  its 
environment.  Such  work  can  be  done  by  any  small  col- 
lege or  high  school,  if  only  the  trustees  and  the  teaching 
corps  will  see  and  grasp  their  opportunity.  In  one  well- 
known  institution  in  the  South,  resting  upon  private 
endowment,  extension  work  among  "  Appalachian  Am- 
ericans "  IS  made  a  prominent  feature,  and  members  of 
the  faculty  are  kept  in  the  field  for  months  at  a  time, 
with  lantern  outfits,  giving  illustrated  lectures  throughout 
the  mountains,  in  every  court  house,  church  and  school' 
house.  The  result  has  been  the  rapid  awakening  of  a 
people. 

The  desire  of  the  people  for  increased  knowledge,  and 
their  readiness  to  make  use  of  any  facilities  to  secure  it, 
are  further  evidenced  by  the  rapid  growth  in  late  years 
of  correspondence  schools,  Chautauqua  circles,  and  home- 
*  study  clubs.  To  aid  in  the  increase  and  improvement  in 
these  means  of  intellectual  growth  seems  clearly  the  duty 
of  all  who  are  interested  in  the  truest  economy  of  human 
intelligence,  character,  and  personality. 

Education  as  a  Subject  of  Extension  Work. —  The 


244  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

severest  indictment  that  has  been  brought  by  the  critics 
of  the  pubHc  school  is  that  the  people  who  have  had  its 
advantages  often  give  it  such  grudging  support.  This 
fact  justifies  the  suggestion  that  education  itself  be  made 
one  of  the  most  prominent  subjects  of  extension  work. 
There  is  no  community,  no  matter  how  backward  and  in- 
different, that  could  not  be  roused  to  greater  effort  in  be- 
half of  its  schools,  by  a  series  of  clear-cut,  popular  lec- 
tures upon  education,  especially  if  these  are  illustrated  by 
lantern  views  contrasting  the  fit  and  the  unfit  in  rural  and 
village  schoolhouse  construction  and  equipment,  and  by 
graphic  statistical  charts  showing  the  ratio  of  productivity 
and  wealth  to  expenditures  for  schools  in  various  com- 
munities. 

There  is  not  a  district  that  could  not  be  benefited  by  the 
service  of  an  educational  evangelist  working  along  these 
lines. 

Educational  Expositions. —  The  object  lesson  is  as 
serviceable  in  informing  adults  upon  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion as  it  is  in  instructing  and  interesting  their  children  in 
the  common  branches.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  the  teacher, 
principal,  or  superintendent  who  wants  to  interest  his 
patrons  in  good  school  work  should  make  the  school  ex- 
position prominent,  both  throughout  his  annual  term  and 
at  its  close.  The  county  superintendent  should  promptly 
avail  himself  of  the  best  representative  work  of  the,  in- 
dividual schools,  and  place  it  prominently  on  display  at 
the  county  associations  and  institutes,  where  it  will  be 
not  only  a  source  of  inspiration  to  the  teachers,  but  a 
means  of  information  and  a  stimulus  to  the  general 
public. 

This  material  could  also  be  exhibited  at  the  county 
fair,    with    most    excellent    results.     Anything    is    good 


PROJECTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  ^4^ 

which  keeps  the  pubHc  schools  and  their  work  promi- 
nently before  the  people. 

Exhibits  of  Model  Schools  and  Schoolhouses.— 
Good  as  it  is  to  keep  the  actual  work  of  the  pupils  before 
the  public,  it  is  even  better  to  show  the  good  teacher 
at  work  with  proper  facilities.  In  almost  any  rural  com- 
munity the  schools  could  be  greatly  improved  by  placing 
at  country  fairs,  or  other  local  gatherings,  a  model  school- 
house,  and  providing  also  for  actual  teaching  therein  by  a 
skillful  and  experienced  teacher.  The  house,  which 
would  have  to  be  portable,  should  be  a  correct  model  in 
all  its  proportions,  and  in  its  equipment  for  heating,  ven- 
tilating, lighting,  seating,  etc.  It  would  be  true  economy 
for  the  state  educational  office  of  any  state  to  keep  sev- 
eral such  houses  in  the  field  throughout  the  summer. 
A  plan  similar  to  this  has  been  used  with  excellent  re- 
sults in  illustrating  the  best  methods  of  agriculture  in 
some  of  the  great  agricultural  states.^  There  is  every 
reason  why  the  public  education  office  of  any  state  should 
carry  on  such  a  propaganda  in  stimulating  educational 
activity. 


The  road  upward  from  ignorance,  want,  narrowed 
lives,  and  materialistic  and  selfish  ideals,  is  a  long 
and  steep  one.  The  summits  to  which  it  leads  will 
not  be  reached  in  one  or  in  two  or  in  a  dozen  gen- 
erations of  men.  But  each  year  of  such  correlation  of 
schools  and  community  as  is  now  everywhere  going 
forward,  will  put  heart  and  strength  into  the  climber 

^  "  Iowa's  campaign  for  better  corn,"  Review  of  Reviews,  30:  563. 


246  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

of  the  upward  way,  and  a  people  shall  be  developed  who 
will  have  power  and  skill,  strength  and  refinement,  time 
and  ability  to  read  a  little  of  the  best  literature,  to  have 
and  enjoy  good  music  and  pictures,  to  cultivate  self- 
control,  personal  poise,  and  the  gentle  graces  of  life  all 
the  more  needed  in  a  strenuous  age. 

Merely  to  live  in  the  midst  of  this  awakening,  to  see  the 
splendid  sweep  and  trend  of  this  movement  to  socialize 
and  democratize  the  schools,  is  a  blessed  privilege.  To  have 
however  small  a  share  in  it,  to  be  able  to  say  in  later  years, 
"  I  was  a  part  of  it,"  will  be  honor  and  happiness. 


INDEX 


Administration, 

of  the  city  school,  86. 

of  the  college,  loo. 

of  the  rural  school,  24. 
Affiliated  colleges,  148. 
Alternation, 

in  the  daily  program,  68. 

in  the  yearly  program,  69. 
Apparatus  and  furniture, 

in  the  city  school,  85. 

in  the  rural  school,  19. 
Appointment  of  teachers,  168. 
Arithmetic   in   the   curriculum, 
180. 

Value  of,  188. 
Arithmetical  aids,  22. 
Art  galleries  and   the  schools, 

235. 
Assembly  hall, 

of  the  city  school,  83. 

of  the  college,  99. 
Associations  of  teachers,  153. 

Protective,  154. 
Athletics  in  college,  109. 

Bachelor's     course     of     three 

years,  225. 
"  Batavia  Experiment,"  223. 
Bird  day  in  school,  53. 
Blackboards,  20. 
Board  of  education. 

City,  159. 

County,  131. 

State,  129. 
Boarding  place  of  rural  teach- 
er, zy. 
Bookcase,  22. 
Buildings  and  grounds, 

of  the  city  schools,  80. 

of  the  rural  schools,  ii. 
Bulletins,  Educational,  121. 


Certificates,        Number        and 

grades  of,  138. 
Certification    of    teachers,    138, 

167. 
Citizenship    the     aim    of    the 

school,  175. 
Citizenship  defined,  175. 
City  school  equipment,  80. 
City  system  of  schools,  159. 
Civics  in  the  curriculum,  181. 

Value  of,  189. 
Civilization,  Criterion  of,  208. 
Classifying  pupils,  26. 
Cloak  rooms, 
in  the  city  school,  83. 
in  the  rural  school,  15. 
Closing  exercises, 
of  the  city  school,  98. 
of  the  college,  116. 
of  the  rural  school, 
for  the  day,  52. 
for  the  term,  'jd. 
Clubs  a  factor  in  college  gov- 
ernment, 107. 
Coeducation      on      the      play 

ground,  74. 
College, 

Function   of,   197. 
buildings  and  equipment,  98. 
Organization  of  session,  100. 
Position  of  in  an  educational 
system,   146. 
College  education,  Products  of, 

199. 
Comfort   of   pupils    an    aid   to 

good  order,  62. 
Commencement, 
in  college,  116. 
in  rural  schools,  78. 
Commercial     course     in     high 
school,  194. 


247 


248 


INDEX 


Compulsory  attendance,  142. 
Concentration  of  rural  schools, 

141. 
Concentration  of  studies,  212. 
Conducting    the    school, 
the  city  school,  88. 
the  college,  loi. 
the  rural  school,  40. 
Consolidation  of  rural  schools, 

141. 
Cooperation  of  students  in  col- 
lege government,  113. 
Coordination  of  studies,  212. 
Correlatipn  of  school  and  com- 
munity, 229. 
Correlation  of  studies,  211-213. 
Corridors,  82. 
Cottages  for  students,  99. 
County  high  schools,  145. 
County  superintendent,  130. 
County  system  of  schools,  \ZZ- 
Course    of    study.    Length    of, 

220. 
Criterion  of  civilization,  208. 
Criticism  by  the  teachers,  169. 
Culture,  208. 
Culture  studies,  185. 
Culture   values   in   curriculum, 

186. 
Current  events,  51. 
Curriculum, 
Administration  of,  207. 
Fundamental     principles     of, 

172. 
of  the  college,  197. 
of  the  elementary  school,  191. 
of  the  rural  school,  30. 
of  the  secondary  school,  191. 
of     the      teachers'     training 

school,  202. 
Sociological    and    psycholog- 
ical, 173. 
Substance  of,   176. 
Culture  as  a  product  of  educa- 
tion,  201,   208. 
"  Culture  epoch  "  theory,  210. 

Daily  program  an  aid  to  good 

order,  64. 
Desks,  19. 


Disciplinary  values  in  the  cur- 
riculum, 186. 
Discipline  in  college,  114. 
Discipline  as  a  product  of  edu- 
cation, 207. 
Discipline,  Mental,  207. 
Disorder,  62. 
Distribution    of    school    funds, 

125. 
Dormitories  for  students,  99. 
Drawing  in  the  curriculum,  190. 
Drinking  facilities, 

in  the  city  school,  85. 

in  the  rural  school,  23. 
Drudgery,  216. 

Value  of,  47. 

Economy  in  education,  47. 
defined,  7. 
differentiated     from    method 

in  education,  8. 
Divisions  of,  9. 
Economy  of  time  and   energy, 

209. 
Education,  Objects  of,  8,  199. 
Educational  bulletins,   121. 
Educational      experimentation, 

225. 
Educational  expositions,  244. 
Educational  extension,  241. 
Educational  observation,  226. 
Educational  council  of  princi- 
pals, 166. 
Election  of  studies,  217. 
Emergency       room      in      city 

schools,  84. 
Eminent  domain  of  city  school 

boards,  163. 
Employment  of  teachers,  138. 
Equipment  of  city  schools,  80. 
Examinations,  220. 
Exhibitions,    School,    58,    78. 
Exits,  82. 
Experimentation    in    education, 

225. 
Expositions, 

Blank  forms  for,  60. 
in  the  college,  116. 
Material  for,  58. 
Method  of,  77. 


INDEX 


249 


School,  244. 

Time  and  place  of,  61. 

Value  of,  60. 
Expulsion  from  college,  115. 
Extension  of  school  term, 

by  spring  schools,  140. 

by  voluntary  teaching,  140. 
"  Extension  "  work,  241. 
Extra    branches    in    the    rural 
schools,  70. 

Fatigue,  64. 
Affecting  the  daily  program, 

94- 

Discriminated     from     weari- 
ness, 93. 

Due  to  misapplied  effort,  95. 

Rarely  due  to  study,  94. 
"  First  day," 

in  the  city  school,  87. 

in  the  rural  school,  38. 
Fitness  of  teachers,  134. 
Fraternities  in  college,  108. 
Free  text  books,  144. 
Functions     of     the      different 

schools,  184. 
Furniture  and  apparatus, 

of  the  city   school,  85. 

of  the  rural  school,  19. 

Geography   in   the  curriculum, 
180. 

Value  of,  189. 
Good  order  in  the  college,  loi. 
Government, 

in  the  city  school,  96. 

in  the  college,   101-114. 

in  the  rural  school,  41. 
Grading   and   grouping   in   the 
rural  school,  24. 

Advantages   of,  27. 

Difficulties  in,  29. 

Suggestive  scheme  of,  30. 
Grading  and  promoting,  219. 
Graduates'  day  in  college,  116. 
Grounds  and  buildings, 

of  the  city  school,  80. 

of  the  rural  school,  11. 
Group  work,  68. 

Half-day  sessions,  92. 


High  schools, 

City,  191. 

County,  145. 

Rural,  144. 
"  Hesperia  Movement,"  238. 
History  in  the  curriculum,  180. 

Value  of,  189. 
Home  and  school,  230. 

Incentives,     False     and     true, 

55,  56. 
Individual  help,  71. 
Individualism,   Danger  of,   172. 
Individual  and  society,  209. 
Inspection  by  the  principal,  90. 
Institutes,  teachers',  150. 
Institutional   factors  of  educa- 
tion, 229. 
Interest,  46, 

and  feeling,  215. 

doctrine  misapplied,  216. 

Kinds  of,  47. 
Interrelation    of    school    units, 

123. 
Interrelation  of  subjects,  214. 
Intervals  of  promotion,  221. 

Knowledge  as  a  product  of  ed- 
ucation, 200. 

Knowledge  insufficient  to  equip 
a  teacher,  103. 

Laboratories,   pedagogical,   120. 

Lamps  in  the  schoolhouse,  22. 

Lancaster  plan,  69. 

Last  day  exercises  in  the  rural 
school,  79. 

Length  of  course,  220. 

Levying  tax  for  city  schools, 
162. 

Library  in  the  city  schools,  84. 

Library  and  school,  Correlation 
of,  233. 

Library,  Teachers'  use  of  pub- 
lic, 234. 

Libraries  for  teachers,  154. 

Literature    in    the    curriculum, 
181, 
Value  of,  190. 

Local  tax  for  schools,  124. 


2SO 


INDEX 


Management, 

in  the  room,  6i. 

on  the  playground,  y2. 
Manumental  training,  177. 

for  girls,  179. 

Values  of,  187. 
Maps  and  globes,  21. 
Marking,   56. 

Medicine  case  in  school,  23. 
Model  schools,  120. 

Buildings  for,  118. 

for  public  inspection,  245. 
Mothers'  meetings,  232. 
Motives  in  school  management, 

43. 
Mottoes  in  school  management, 

50. 
Museums,  Pedagogical,  119. 
Museums  and  the  school,  Cor- 
relation of,  234. 
Music, 

in  the  curriculum,  190. 

in  school  management,  51. 

New  students  in  college,   105- 

113. 
Normal  schools,  149. 
Nurse,  School,  231. 

Opening  exercises, 

in  the  city  school,  91. 

in  the  college,   112. 

in  the  rural  school,  49. 
Opening  school,  38. 
Operations  of  the  mind,  183. 
Order,  62. 
Organization  of  school  work, 

in  the  city  school,  86. 

in  the  college,  100. 

in  the  rural  school,  24. 
Organization  of  school  systems, 
122. 

Parents'   visits    to    the    school, 

232. 
Pay  of  teachers,  Scale  of,  168. 
Payment  of  teachers  by  grade 

of  certificate,  128. 
Pedagogical  laboratories,  120. 
Pedagogical  museums,  119. 
Pensions  for  teachers,  158. 


Personality  of  the   teacher   in 

school  government,  62. 
Physical  fitness  of  the  teacher, 

134- 
Physical  training  in  the  curric- 
ulum, 182. 
Pictures  in  the  school,  236. 
Play,  Dangerous,  72)- 
Playground  management,  72. 
Playgrounds    in    cities,    Public, 

240. 
Playgrounds,  space  for,  in  city 

schools,  81. 
Power  as  a  product  of  educa- 
tion, 200. 
Practice  schools,  120. 
Buildings   for,   118. 
Press   and   school,   Correlation 

of,  237. 
Principals,  165. 
Duties  of,  86. 
Equipment  of,  88. 
Inspection  by,  90. 
Office  work  of,  91. 
Teaching  by,  91. 
Private  schools,    State  control 

of,  157. 
Prizes,  155. 
Program, 
for  a  bird  day,  53. 
Closing,  79. 
Daily,  67. 

for  opening  exercises,  50. 
Projection   of   the   school   into 

the  community,  238. 
Promotion  and  grading,  219. 
Promotion   intervals,  221. 
Psychological  aspect  of  the  cur- 
riculum, 173-182. 
Psychological  values  of  studies, 

185.  , 
Public    library,    Teachers'    use 

of,  234. 
"  Pueblo  plan,"  71. 
Pulpit  and   school,  Correlation 

of,  237. 
Punishment,  44. 
by  deprivation,  44. 
Corporal,  45. 
Purposes  of,  45. 


INDEX 


251 


Teacher's  relation  to,  46. 
Pupil  self-government,  97. 
Pupil  and  teacher,  Relation  of, 
41- 

Quarreling  on  the  playground, 
72. 

Reading    circles    for    teachers, 

154. 
Religious    associations    in    col- 
lege, 107. 
Reports  to  parents,  57. 
Revenues  for  schools,  123. 
Rules  in  management,  42. 

not  needed  in  college,  105. 
Rural  schools,  11. 

Concentration    of,    141. 

Conducting,  40. 

Equipment  of,  11. 

Organization  of,  24. 

Taking  charge  of,  37.    . 
Rural  high  schools,  144. 

Scale  of  pay  of  teachers,  168. 
Scholarship   of   teacher  an   aid 

in  school  government,  63. 
School  government, 

in  the  city  school,  96. 

in  the  college,   100. 

in  the  rural  school,  40. 
Schoolhouses  (rural),  14. 

Air  space  in,  17. 

Construction  of,  15. 

Heating  of,  17. 

Site  for,  12. 

Ventilation  of,  18. 

Yard  for,  13. 
Schoolhouses     as     community 

centers,  238. 
School  nurse,  231. 
School  systems,  122. 

City,   159. 

County,  133. 

State,  123. 
School  visitors,  170. 
School  year,  224. 
Science  in  the  curriculum,  176. 

Value  of,   186. 


Self  government,  43. 

in  college,  113. 

in  school,  97. 
Shortening  the  college  course, 

224. 
Signals  in  calling  and  dismiss- 
ing, 71- 
Site, 

of  the  city  school,  80. 

of  the  rural  school,  12. 
Social  life  in  college,  106. 
Socialization  of  the  individual, 

208. 
Social  values  of  studies,  185. 
Society  and  the  individual,  209. 
Sociological  aspects  of  the  cur- 
riculum, 173,  176. 
Special  days- to  be  observed,  53. 
Spring  schools,  140. 
State       control       of       private 

schools,    156. 
State  superintendent,  128. 
State  system  of  schools,  123. 
Student  cooperation  in  college 

government,   113. 
Student  organizations,  107. 
Study  at  school,  66. 
Superintendent, 

City,   164. 

County,    130. 

State,   128. 
Systems  of  schools. 

City,   159. 

County,  153. 

State,    123. 

Teacher    on    the    playground, 

72-75. 
Teacher    and    pupil.    Relations 

of,  41. 
Teachers, 

in  city  schools,  166. 

in  rural  schools,  138. 
Teachers'  associations,  153. 

certification,    138. 

criticisms,    169. 

culture,  136. 

employment,   138. 

fitness,  134. 

institutes,  150. 


^5^ 


MDEX 


knowledge  of  subject-matter. 

135. 
liberty,  169. 
meetings,   189. 
moral  character,  136. 
pensions,   158. 
personality,   an   aid   to   good 

order,  62. 
professional  skill,  135. 
professional  training,  149. 
responsibility     to     the    com- 
munity, 134. 
scholarship  as  an  aid  to  good 

order,  63. 
tenure  of  office,  168. 
training     schools,     118,     121, 

170,   202. 
use  of  the  public  library,  234. 
visits  to  other  rooms,  90. 
visits  to  parents,  230. 
Teaching    power    a    factor    in 

college  government,  102. 
Text-books, 
Free,  144. 

State  uniformity  of,  144. 
Supply   of,    143. 
Time    economized    in    college, 

100. 
Time     in     college     and     high 

school,  223. 


Toilet  rooms,  184. 

"  Town  and  gown,"  loi. 

Training  schools   for  teachers, 

118,  149,  170. 
Transportation   to   school,    141. 
Trespassing  by  pupils,  74. 

Uniformity  in  text  books,  144. 

Unity  of  educational  processes, 
.174. 

Unity  in  education,  100, 

University,  in  educational  sys- 
tem, 147. 

Utilitarian  values  in  the  cur- 
riculum,  186. 

Vacation  schools,  240. 
Values,  utilitarian,  disciplinary, 

cultural,  186. 
Visitors,  School,  170. 
Visits  of  the  teacher  to  other 

rooms,  90. 
to  parents,  230. 
Voluntary      systemization      of 

schools,  147. 

Waste  in  education,  218. 
Water  supply  of  rural  schools, 

23- 
Weariness  and  fatigue,  93. 


Text-Books  in  Manual  Training 


COMPTON'S  FIRST  LESSONS  IN  WOOD  WORKING 

By  Alfred  G.  Compton,  of  the  College  of  the  City  of 

New  York       .         . 30  cents 

A  handbook  for  children,  taking  up  the  use  of  representative  wood 

working  tools  with  their  applications,  and  giving  sufficiently  specific  and 

exact  directions  to  enable  any  teacher  successfully  to  begin  the  work  of 

manual  training. 

GOLDEN'S  LABORATORY  COURSE  IN  WOOD-TURNING 
By   Michael  J.   Golden,   M.E.,   Professor  of   Practical 

Mechanics  in  Purdue  University 80  cents 

A  practical  text-book  for  manual  training  schools,  designed  to  give 

the  student  a  knowledge  and  command  of  the  tools  and  material  used 

in  wood-turning.     All  the  tools  and  machines  are  fully  illustrated  and 

their  use  clearly  described. 

HOFFMAN'S  SLOYD  SYSTEM  OF  WOOD  WORKING 

By  B.  B.  Hoffman,  A.B.,  formerly  Superintendent  of  the 

Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  Trade  Schools $1.00 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  an  account  of  the  theory  and 
practical  application  of  the  "  Sloyd  System"  of  manual  training.  It 
also  includes  a  list  and  drawings  of  the  models  of  the  "  Rodhe  System  " 
for  children  of  the  age  of  five  to  eleven  years,  filling  the  void  between 
the  kindergarten  and  the  Sloyd  system.  In  the  treatment  of  the  prac- 
tical work,  as  few  technical  expressions  as  possible  have  been  used,  so 
that  a  teacher  who  may  have  had  no  previous  experience  in  work  of  this 
kind  may  nevertheless  be  able  to  follow  out  a  course  of  manual  training 
in  wood  work  without  any  outside  assistance. 

SICKELS'S  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD  WORKING 

By  IviN    SiCKELS,   M.S.,   of    the    College   of    the  City  of 

New  York $1.00 

This  book  consists  of  two  parts:  The  first,  a  treatise  on  wood, 
including  its  growth,  structure,  properties,  and  kinds,  together  with 
causes  of  its  decay,  and  means  of  its  preservation.  The  second  part 
contains  a  description,  with  illustrations,  of  the  various  tools  used  in  the 
exercises. 


Copies  of  any  of  these  books  will  be  sent^  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price, 

American   Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 


(184) 


Books  for  Teachers 


Aiken's  Methods  of  Mind-Training $1.00 

Aiken's  Exercises  in  Mind-Training 1.00 

Alling-Aber's  Experiment  in  Education 1.25 

Burns's  How  to  Teach  Reading  and  Composition       ...  .50 

Dewey's  Psychology .  1.25 

Hailmann's  History  of  Pedagogy .60 

Haileck's  Psychology  and  Psychic  Culture          .         .         ,         .  1.25 

Winsdale's  The  Art  of  Study 1.00 

King's  School  Interests  and  Duties 1.00 

Mann's  School  Recreations  and  Amusements     .         .         ,         .  1.00 

Page's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  (Branson)    .         .         .  1.00 

Palmer's  Science  of  Education  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  1.00 

Payne's  School  Supervision        , 1.00 

Putnam's  Text-Book  of  Psychology   .         ,         .         .         .         .  1.00 

Roark's  Method  in  Education 1 .00 

Roark's  Psychology  in  Education 1.00 

Seeley's  History  of  Education 1.25 

Shoup's  History  and  Science  of  Education         .         .         .         .  1.00 

Swett's  American  Public  Schools 1.00 

White's  ^Elements  of  Pedagogy 1.00 

White's  School  Management      . 1.00 

White's  Art  of  Teaching .  1.00 


Copies  senty  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price, 

American   Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

(197) 


Page's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching 

Edited  by  E.  C.  BRANSON,  A.M. 
Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Georgia  State  Normal  School. 

Cloth,  12mo,  385  pages Price,  $1.00 


For  more  than  half  a  century  Page's  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Teaching  has  been  the  recognized  standard  and 
accepted  mentor  of  the  teachers*  profession.  Since  its 
first  publication  in  1847  it  has  passed  through  more 
editions,  has  been  more  largely  read,  and  has  exerted  a 
deeper  influence  upon  successive  generations  of  teachers 
than  any  other  work  ever  published.  Its  usefulness  and 
popularity  remain  undiminished;  it  is  still  the  first  book 
recommended  for  the  young  teacher's  reading  and  guid- 
ance, and  still  continues  a  never  failing  source  of 
instruction  and  inspiration  in  the  teacher's  work. 

In  the  present  edition  the  pubhshers  have  given  the 
original  work  the  most  attractive  form  and  dress  in  which 
it  has  ever  been  presented  to  the  public.  The  chapters 
are  introduced  by  apposite  quotations  and  are  followed  by 
topical  outlines,  subjects  for  discussions  or  papers,  refer, 
ences  to  pedagogical  works,  bibliographies  of  teachers* 
books,  and  such  other  aids  as  will  serve  to  heighten  the 
value  of  the  original  work  for  private  students,  for 
classrooms,  and  for  reading  circles. 


Copies  sent^  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price. 

American    Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

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A  Text-Book  of  Psychology 

By  DANIEL  PUTNAM,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  in  the  Michigan  State  Normal  College. 

Cloth,  12mo.      300  pages.      Price,  $1.00 


This  work  is  designed  especially  as  a  text-book  for 
normal  schools,  high  schools,  and  other  secondary  schools. 
It  is  also  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles  and  of  private  students.  The  language 
employed  is  simple,  direct,  and  readily  understood  by  the 
ordinary  student.  It  combines  the  best  of  both  the  new 
and  the  old  in  psychology.  The  existence  of  an  entity 
which  may  properly  be  called  the  mind  or  soul  is  recog- 
nized. The  vital  importance  of  mental  introspection,  as 
the  starting  point  in  the  study  of  the  mind  is  emphasized. 
Physiological  psychology,  without  being  made  unduly 
prominent,  is  treated  with  sufficient  fulness  to  show  the 
relation  of  body  and  mind,  an  appendix  giving  helpful 
suggestions  for  experiments  in  this  line  of  research.  The 
successive  steps  in  the  thinking  or  elaborative  process  are 
brought  out  with  marked  clearness  and  distinctness.  The 
subject  of  the  emotions  receives  more  attention  than  is 
usually  given  to  this  important  topic.  A  chapter  is 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  the  moral  nature  and  moral 
law,  and  the  development  of  a  disposition  to  right  con- 
duct. The  book  presents  in  the  clearest  and  most  concise 
manner,  an  adequate  exposition  of  the  principles  of 
psychology. 


Copies  of  Putnam's  Psychology  will  be  sent  to  any  address^  postpaid, 
on  receipt  of  the  price. 

American   Book^ Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

(194) 


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